Regeneration Of Woody Species Research Articles

Effects of Grazing Intensity on the Regeneration of Woody Species in an Oak Woodland

In the Mediterranean regions, oak forests are commonly used for livestock grazing. However, it is well documented that livestock grazing is an essential factor that can affect the success of natural regeneration of oak and other woody species of the understorey. Consequently, it influences the composition and structure of oak woodlands. The main objective of the present study was to examine the effects of grazing intensity on characteristics of oak seedlings establishment (density, height, number of leaves) and on the diversity of the woody species seedlings. The research was conducted in open canopy Quercus frainetto woodland, grazed by a herd of 500 goats for eight months per year, located in Evros region, north-eastern Greece. The distance from a goat corral was used to represent relative grazing intensity. In May 2016, vegetation measurements were made along transects placed at 50, 150, 300, 600 and 1200 m from the goat corral, running perpendicular to four replicates. According to the results, increased grazing intensity significantly reduced the density, the plant height and the number of leaves of Quercus frainetto seedlings. Grazing intensity did not affect significantly diversity, evenness and dominance indices for the woody species seedlings. However, heavy grazing reduced species richness and the Chao1 index.

Structure, composition and regeneration of riparian forest along an altitudinal gradient in northern Iran

In order to protect and understand the regeneration of riparian forests, it is important to understand the environmental conditions that lead to their vegetation differentiation. We evaluated the structure, composition, density and regeneration of woody species in forests along the river Safaroud in Ramsar forest in northern Iran in relation to elevation, soil properties and distance from the river. Using 60 transects located perpendicularly to river and 300 quadrats, we examined forests 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 m from the stream along an elevation gradient spanning from 350 to 2,400 m a.s.l. We found that total density, regeneration, diameter and basal area of trees were significantly higher in the interior of the forest whereas shrub density was higher close to the river. The uneven-aged forest structure showed no significant differences among gradient from the river to the forest interior. Hydro-geomorphic processes, flooding, the elevation gradient, distance from the river and soil properties were the most important factors that influenced plant community distribution in relation to the river.

Effects of Piliostigma reticulatum on the Vegetation Dynamic in Sudanian Zone of Burkina Faso

This study aims at identifying the effect of P. reticulatum on the vegetation regeneration dynamic in Sudanian fallows of Burkina Faso. Two fallows of about twenty years old have been considered. The point quadrat method was used for herbaceous inventory. Aboveground biomass has been estimated. Moreover, effect of P. reticulatum on the regeneration of others woody species has been studied under, at the limit and out of the shrub canopy. In north Sudanian zone, inventory recorded 39 herbaceous species of which 23 species under the canopy and 16 in open grassland, distributed in 12 families and 22 genera. In south Sudanian zone, species diversity is 41 species from which 23 under the canopy and 18 out of, spread in 16 families and 26 genera. Species higher than 80 cm have been observed only under P. reticulatum canopy in south and north Sudanian zone. In addition, no species of striga met in open sunlight has been observed under the shrub canopy. East and West directions recorded the important proportions of species with individuals belonging to the stratum superior to 100 cm (3.13 and 4.81 % in north direction, 1.47 and 1.73% in south directions).

Assessment of Natural Regeneration of Mangrove Species at Tsunami Affected Areas in Indonesia and Malaysia

Indian Ocean tsunami caused extensive damage on human life and coastal environments, including fragmented mangroves prior to 2004 tsunami. The natural regeneration of mangrove woody species was assessed in four tidal coasts of Aceh and Peninsular Malaysia during August 2015 to August 2016. A total of 23 mangrove woody species was recorded and they having good ability in term of natural regeneration at tsunami affected areas. The North coast of Aceh was recorded as richest mangrove with 22 species, followed by East coast of Aceh (17 species) and Peninsular Malaysia coast (13 species). In addition, the poorest mangrove was found in West coast of Aceh (7 species). Some species, such as Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Nypa fruticans, Scaevola taccada and Sonneratia caseolaris are found growing well in all sites. In contrast, Bruguiera cylindrica is only found in West coast of Peninsular Malaysia as same as Ceriops tagal, Phoenix paludosa and Sonneratia ovata are only found in North coast of Aceh. To date, some areas of natural regenerated mangrove were ruined by negative activities, such as illegal cutting and encroachment. Therefore, public consultations and community participations were needed to develop and conserve the important natural assets.

The paradox of long-term ungulate impact: increase of plant species richness in a temperate forest.

Did high densities of wild ungulates cause a decline in plant species richness in a temperate oakwood? How did species composition change after nearly five decades? Did ungulates facilitate the spread of ruderal species and supress endangered species? Did dispersal strategies play a role in these processes? Krumlov Wood, SE Czech Republic. In 2012, we resampled 58 quasi-permanent vegetation plots first surveyed in 1960s. Between the surveys, 36 plots were enclosed in a game preserve with artificially high density of ungulates (mostly deer, mouflon and wild boar; ca. 55 animals per square km). We analysed the differences in temporal changes between plots inside and outside the game preserve, focusing on species diversity and composition. We assessed species characteristics relevant to grazing to understand compositional changes. Ungulates significantly increased alpha and gamma diversity and caused significant vegetation homogenization inside the game preserve. Vegetation homogenization and the increase in species richness resulted from massive enrichment by ruderal species. However, richness of endangered species decreased. Species dispersed by animals internally (endozoochory) increased, while species dispersed externally (epizoochory) or by wind (anemochory) decreased. Contrary to our expectations, our long-term data showed that artificially high ungulate densities substantially increased plant species richness. Apparently, the establishment of ruderal herbs was supported by frequent disturbances and ungulate-mediated dispersal. At the same time, species richness of non-ruderal plants did not change, probably because ungulates hindered the regeneration of woody species and maintained an open forest canopy. In conclusion, high ungulate density led to the spread of ruderal species, which in turn strongly contributed to the observed shift towards nutrient-richer conditions and taxonomically more homogenous communities.

Integración de datos de inventario y modelos dehábitat para predecir la regeneración de especies leñosas mediterráneas en repoblaciones forestales

Navarro-Cerrillo, R. M., Clavero, I., Lorenzo Vidaña, A., Quero J. L., Duque-Lazo J. 2016. Forest Inventories and habitat models to predictregeneration of Mediterranean woody species in forest plantations. Ecosistemas 25(3): 6-21. Doi.: 10.7818/ECOS.2016.25-3.02 Can we model the potential habitat of natural regeneration of Mediterranean woody species in forest plantations using distribution models? In this paper, dasometric variables from a forest inventory of Sierra de Baza Natural Park, combined with environmental variables (climatic, topographic) and biotic variables were analyzed to assess which factors influence the regeneration of seven woody species (Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. halepensis, Quercus ilex, Crataegus monogyna and Acer opalus). Modeling potential habitat for regeneration was done using Maxent in the current climate, and two future climate scenarios. The combination of biotic and climatic variables was important to predict regeneration of Pinus species, A. opalus subsp. granatense and C. monogyna, while the regeneration of Q. ilex was more related to climate predictors. In future climate change scenarios, P. halepensis optimum regeneration habitat could increase significantly, whereas the remaining species tend to moderate decreases (25%) for the period 2000-2050. Our results highlight the importance of species distribution models as a useful tool for achieving greater naturalization of forest plantations by identifying areas of future climatic optimum distribution. We further demonstrate the potential of forest inventory data to monitor changes in regeneration and prioritize restoration actions to facilitate regeneration.

Scaling up farmer‐managed natural regeneration in Africa to restore degraded landscapes

AbstractWe present examples of large‐scale farmer‐managed natural regeneration of woody species in Africa to create new agroforestry systems. We also analyze two cases in Ethiopia of large‐scale natural regeneration. The available evidence shows that the average costs per hectare of promoting on‐farm natural regeneration are low as soon as farmers are familiar with this practice and begin to spontaneously adopt it. Based on these cases, current ambitious forest restoration targets can be achieved, but this goal requires a shift from tree planting to assisted natural regeneration. We propose a scaling‐up strategy for natural regeneration based on experience gained mainly in the West African Sahel.

Regeneration of woody plants under isolated shrubs in a sector of the Iberá marshlands, Corrientes Province, Argentina, ethnoecological implications.

A study of the natural regeneration of woody species under isolated bushes in a sector of northeast of Ibera Macrosystem is presented. The aim of the study was to evaluate the nurse effect of shrubs and structural parameters of regeneration. We show that the presence of isolated shrubs is fundamental to establish regeneration and that Ilex dumosa var. guaranina, Miconia chamissois, and Ocotea lancifolia promoted their abundance and richness. The regeneration involved 21 species, but was mainly structured by Miconia chamissois, Ilex dumosa var. guaranina, Citronella gongonha, and Myrsine parvula. The results indicate that Ilex dumosa var. guaranina was the most abundant solitary species and one of the best to regenerate under these conditions. While this shrub may constitute the initial stage in the formation of more or less large forests fragments, we suggest that the abundance of Ilex dumosa var. guaranina in this kind of primary woody succession prompted the expression “ka’a mirĩ” (the incipient forest), a guarani name of this species.

Plant diversity and regeneration in a disturbed isolated dry Afromontane forest in northern Ethiopia

We studied the diversity, community composition and natural regeneration of woody species in an isolated but relatively large (> 1,000 ha) dry Afromontane forest in northern Ethiopia to assess its importance for regional forest biodiversity conservation. The principal human-induced disturbance regimes affecting this forest include logging and livestock grazing. Vegetation data were collected in 65 plots (50 m × 50 m); seedling species composition and density were determined in 10 m × 10 m nested plots. We used a cluster analysis to identify plant communities and non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination to investigate environmental factors that influenced the distribution of the emergent plant communities. Three plant communities were identified: a Juniperus procera-Maytenus senegalensis community, which represented a phase of the potential natural dry Afromontane forest vegetation on steep slopes with shallow soils, a Pterolobium stellatum-Celtis africana community, found on more mesic sites, and a Cadia purpurea-Opuntia ficus-indica community, typically representing severely disturbed habitats. Altitude, slope, soil depth and distance to the nearest stream, which we collectively interpreted as a moisture gradient, and forest disturbance separated the plant communities. With only 39 of the 79 recorded woody species present in the seedling layer, the forest currently faces an extinction debt of 50 per cent of the total woody species pool. Human disturbance has clearly affected plant species diversity in this forest as degraded plant communities typically lacked the commercially interesting or otherwise valuable tree species, were encroached by shrubs and in areas severely invaded by alien species. Further disturbance will most likely result in additional declines in biodiversity through local extinction of indigenous tree species. Despite the problems associated with conserving plant species diversity in small and isolated populations, this relic forest is of particular importance for regional conservation of forest biodiversity, as species with high conservation value, such as Afrocarpus falcatus, Allophylus abyssinicus and Bersama abyssinica, are still present as mature trees, and as other forest fragments in the region are two orders of magnitude smaller, and therefore more heavily impacted by small population sizes and unfavourable edge effects. Forest management should focus on avoiding further degradation, increasing natural regeneration and improving stakeholder participation.

Species diversity, regeneration and dominance as influenced by canopy gaps and their characteristics in tropical evergreen forests of Western Ghats, India

Canopy gaps play a significant role in maintaining structure and composition of tropical forests. This study was carried out in tropical evergreen forests of central Western Ghats in India to understand the influence of canopy gap size and the relationship of gap regime attributes to diversity measures and regeneration. The average gap size in the study area was found to be 396 m2 and around half of gaps were 4–8 years old. Gaps created by natural single tree fall were smaller in size but significantly higher in number. Diversity and regeneration of woody species were compared with canopy gaps and intact vegetation. Species richness and diversity was higher in gaps than in intact vegetation. Macaranga peltata, a shade intolerant species dominated gaps while intact vegetation was dominated by shade tolerant Kingiodendron pinnatum. Gap size significantly influenced species diversity and regeneration. Gap area and age were significantly and negatively correlated with diversity measures but positively correlated with regeneration. Among all the attributes of gaps, regeneration was significantly positively correlated with light intensity. Gaps maintained species diversity and favored regeneration of woody species. In addition to gap size and age, other gap ecological attributes also affected species diversity and regeneration.

Reproduction in plants of grass and subshrub layer as a factor of the forest ecosystem stabilization

Reproduction in a broad sense is the process by which female parents generate some or other germs (diasporas) able to form new individuals that are genetically similar to the female parents. The two main types of reproduction are found in forest grasses and subshrubs: seed (or by spores in spore-bearing plants) and vegetative. The establishment of features of plan reproduction of grass and subshrub layer is an important scientific issue in the context of the preservation and restoration of forest ecosystems, because plants of grass and subshrub layer have a significant impact on the initial stages of natural regeneration of plants of the first layer. Some features of reproduction of plants of different layers of forest ecosystems – from grass to woody – have been studied on the basis of our own observations and literature data. The observations were carried out on the territory of Desnyansko-Starogutsky National Nature Park and the adjacent territories. Forest ecosystems of the north-east of Ukraine have been in active use for a long time. Currently, these forests, in part, have obtained conservation status, and the volume of logging has been sharply reduced. Therefore, the majority of forests are characterized by the progressive succession, during which the proportion of plant silvan species increases and, consequently, the number of motile vegetative plant species increases in the lower layers of forest. The eight plant species of grass and subshrub layer, such as Aegopodium podagraria L., Asarum europaeum L., Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull, Carex pilosa Scop., Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench., Stellaria holostea L. Vaccinium myrtillus L., Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., have been selected as models. It is established that the capacity for vegetative propagation and clone formation is an important feature of reproduction of most forest grasses. The key parameters of generative reproduction of clone forming plants of grass and subshrub layer and their dependence on the ecological and coenotic factors have been shown as well. To establish the level of reproduction the following morphometric parameters were determined: weight of generative organs (g), number of generative shoots (pieces), reproductive effort (%), share of generative individuals in the population (%). In case of generative reproduction, an important biological characteristic is the so-called reproductive effort, which characterizes the contribution of organic matters and energy in the reproductive process. It is typically shown as the percentage of phytomass of the reproductive structures of the total phytomass. In general, generativity of the investigated plants of grass and subshrub layer was determined by the ecological and cenotic conditions, and therefore varied from association to association. Forest grasses and subshrubs, in turn, are an important factor for regeneration of all types of woody species in forest ecosystems. Depending on the composition and abundance of plants of grass and subshrub layer, the number of seedlings and little undergrowth of all woody species of trees is reduced in varying degrees, and the indicators of their growth are getting worse. The impact of the live ground cover on undergrowth of woody species is ultimately determined by the specificity of the ecological and coenotic situation in the areas of regeneration and the specific ecological and phytocoenotic properties of undergrowth of certain woody species. The main environmental problems of recreational zones from the perspective of possibilities of natural regeneration of woody species are the effect of mechanical actions on the soil. Grass and subshrub layer as a sensitive indicator of the increase in anthropogenic load is the first to undergo such transformation in recreational forests. Under its influence its species composition varies and is depleted, distribution of certain species as well as their phytomass and projective cover decrease. Many forest species disappear from the cover, and weeds begin to grow. Protection of forests as holistic ecosystems is an important issue, being developed during the XX century, and not having lost its significance even today. The main directions of its solution are connected with the development of the ecological network of Ukraine and the proper use of all forest resources.

The impact of feral camels (Camelus dromedarius) on woody vegetation in arid Australia

Data on the extent of feral camel damage on trees and shrubs in inland Australia are scarce, and there is currently no universally accepted theoretical framework for predicting the impact of a novel large mammal browser on arid vegetation. In other (mainly mesic) grassy systems, large mammal browsers can strongly suppress woody biomass across landscapes by limiting the transition of saplings to adulthood and by significantly thinning adult tree canopies. The recent Australian Feral Camel Management Project provided an opportunity to assess the impacts of camel browsing on woody vegetation in inland Australia. We examined browsing intensity and severity (stunting and canopy loss) in 22 species of woody plants in camel-affected regions across inland Australia prior to camel removal operations. The severity of plant damage increased with camel density as both trees and shrub growth were strongly suppressed where camel densities exceeded 0.25 km–2. In most tree and shrub species tested, camel browsing significantly stunted plants, suggesting that camel browsing has long-term impacts on plant populations. Browsing also reduced canopy volume in several species, including the structurally important Acacia aneura F.Muell. ex Benth. Thus, in this dryland ecosystem, camels can curtail the regeneration and growth of woody species enough to threaten ecosystem health. To avoid adverse impacts on woody plant populations, camel densities should be maintained at 0.25 camels km–2 or less over as much of inland Australia as possible.

EFFET DU RELIEF SUR LA RÉGÉNÉRATION DES ESPÈCES LIGNEUSES EN ZONE SOUDANIENNE DU BÉNIN

La régénération des espèces ligneuses est un des domaines d’intérêt majeurs des écologues dans le processus de renouvellement des écosystèmes. La pré- sente étude visait, d’une part, à analyser le potentiel de régénération des unités de végétation en zone soudanienne au Bénin et, d’autre part, à renseigner ses variations en fonction du relief. Au total, 615 placettes carrées de 25 m2 ont été matérialisées à l’intérieur de treize uni- tés de végétation dans la Réserve de Biosphère de la Pendjari. La régénéra- tion a été inventoriée en relevant dans chaque placette le nombre d’indivi- dus par espèce. Le modèle log-linéaire associé à la loi de Poisson a permis de modéliser la densité de régénération et le nombre d’espèces en régénération selon quatre types de relief. Le potentiel de régénération des unités de végétation de la Réserve de biosphère de la Pendjari reflète bien la composition floristique de la végétation en place. La régression de Poisson montre que le relief a un effet significatif sur la densité de régénération et le nombre d’espèces en régénération. Le potentiel de régénération au sein des plaines d’inondation et bordures de cours d’eau est faible par rapport à celui des collines et plateaux. Les densités de régénération observées sur les bordures de cours d’eau, les plaines d’inondation et les collines sont respectivement de 1,01, 0,67 et 2,1 fois supérieures à celles observées sur les plateaux. Le nombre d’espèces en régénération augmente des plateaux vers les collines, mais diminue des plateaux vers les plaines d’inonda- tion et les bordures de cours d’eau. Les conditions topographiques influencent l’établissement des espèces ligneuses en zone soudanienne.

Floristic Composition, Vegetation Structure, and Regeneration Status of Woody Plant Species of Oda Forest of Humbo Carbon Project, Wolaita, Ethiopia

Our current study was conducted in Oda forest to explore floristic composition, vegetation structure, and regeneration of woody species in a newly established Humbo Carbon Project. In the project, the above information for sufficient conservation and management of the forest is not well documented. Data were collected in October and December 2014. Thirty-two quadrats (20 m × 20 m) lying 100 m far apart were used for shrub and tree data. In each major plot, subplots (1 m2) were established at the center and corner for seedlings and saplings data. Altitude, slope, and aspect were measured using GPS and clinometers. DBH, basal area, and IVI were used for vegetation structure. Among 62 species confined in 32 families and 54 genera, Dodonaea angustifolia and Combretum molle were the densest and the most dominant and frequent species with higher IVI. Altitude and slope had significant effect (p<0.0001) on basal area and dominance. Bell and inverted J shaped patterns of selected woody species were identified. The seedling, sapling, and matured tree had 2.3%, 23.7%, and 74% density ha−1 of individuals, respectively. Generally, the study confirmed that very few species had dominance and abundance, influence of altitude and slope on species distribution, and fair regeneration of the forest.

Influence of Removal of a Non-native Tree Species Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth. on the Regenerating Plant Communities in a Tropical Semideciduous Forest Under Restoration in Brazil.

Exotic species are used to trigger facilitation in restoration plantings, but this positive effect may not be permanent and these species may have negative effects later on. Since such species can provide a marketable product (firewood), their harvest may represent an advantageous strategy to achieve both ecological and economic benefits. In this study, we looked at the effect of removal of a non-native tree species (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia) on the understory of a semideciduous forest undergoing restoration. We assessed two 14-year-old plantation systems (modified "taungya" agroforestry system; and mixed plantation using commercial timber and firewood tree species) established at two sites with contrasting soil properties in São Paulo state, Brazil. The experimental design included randomized blocks with split plots. The natural regeneration of woody species (height ≥0.2m) was compared between managed (all M. caesalpiniifolia trees removed) and unmanaged plots during the first year after the intervention. The removal of M. caesalpiniifolia increased species diversity but decreased stand basal area. Nevertheless, the basal area loss was recovered after 1year. The management treatment affected tree species regeneration differently between species groups. The results of this study suggest that removal of M. caesalpiniifolia benefited the understory and possibly accelerated the succession process. Further monitoring studies are needed to evaluate the longer term effects on stand structure and composition. The lack of negative effects of tree removal on the natural regeneration indicates that such interventions can be recommended, especially considering the expectations of economic revenues from tree harvesting in restoration plantings.

Maranthaceae overabundance decreases richness and abundance of regenerating woody plants in natural gaps

Natural gaps are known to be one of the most common disturbance types in tropical forests. Maranthaceae is one of the most important herb families and some studies on gaps address the influence of herbs on the regeneration of shrubs and trees. Maranthaceae are common and sometimes dominant herbs in tropical forest gaps. In this study we investigated the impact of Maranthaceae overabundance on the regeneration of woody species in natural gaps in a bamboo-dominated ( Guadua weberbaueri Pilg.; Poaceae) forest fragment in southwestern Amazonia. We sampled 20 natural gaps, where Maranthaceae and woody plants with height ≥ 1 m and DBH ≤ 10 cm were counted, measured and identified. We used NMDS for species composition analyses and a GLM to test the influence of Maranthaceae overabundance on woody species richness and abundance. We also measured the similarity of woody species richness and abundance among Maranthaceae dominated and non-dominated gaps. The NMDS shows a distinction between Maranthaceae dominated and non-dominated gaps. The overabundance of Maranthaceae reduced significantly the richness and abundance of woody species. Species composition was also dissimilar among gaps and was influenced by Maranthaceae overabundance. Keywords: natural disturbances, herbaceous, plant succession.

An assessment of the natural regeneration of valuable woody species in north eastern Namibia

An assessment of the natural regeneration of valuable woody species in north eastern Namibia

Long-term effects of Macrotermes termites, herbivores and annual early fire on woody undergrowth community in Sudanian woodland, Burkina Faso

Termites, herbivores and fire are recognized as major guilds that structure woody plant communities in African savanna and woodland ecosystems. An understanding of their interaction is crucial to design appropriate management regimes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long–term impacts of herbivore, fire and termite activities on regeneration of trees. Permanent experimental quadrats were established in 1992 in the Sudanian woodland of Burkina Faso subjected to grazing by livestock and annual early fire and the control. Within the treatment quadrats, an inventory of the woody undergrowth community was conducted on termitaria occupied by Macrotermessubhyalinus, extended termitosphere (within 5m radius from the mound base) and adjacent area (beyond 5m from the mound base). Hierarchical analysis was performed to determine significant differences in species richness, abundance and diversity indices among vegetation patches within fire and herbivory treatments. Grazed quadrats had significantly (P<0.001) more species and stem density of woody undergrowth than non-grazed quadrats but maintained similar level of species richness and stem density of woody undergrowth on termitaria. There were not significant differences (P>0.05) in species richness and stem density between burnt and unburnt quadrats. Termitaria supported a highly diverse woody undergrowth with higher stem density than either the extended termitosphere or rest of quadrats. The density of woody undergrowth was significantly related with mature trees of selected species on termitaria (R2=0.593; P<0.001) than that on the extended termitosphere (R2=0.333; P<0.001) and adjacent area (R2=0.197; P<0.001). It can be concluded that termites facilitate the regeneration of woody species while grazing and annual early fire play a minor role in the regeneration of woody species. The current policy that prohibits grazing should be revised to accommodate the interests of livestock herders.

Gap closure process by lateral extension growth of canopy trees and its effect on woody species regeneration in a temperate secondary forest, Northeast China

Gap formation and its effects on regeneration have been reported as being important in forest development, but seldom studies concentrated on the gap closure process by lateral extension growth of canopy trees surrounding gaps. We monitored the closure process of 12 artificial gaps for 7 years with three size classes: small (from 68 mto 125 m), middle (from 174 m to 321 m), and large (from 514 m to 621 m); and investigated the regeneration twice in a temperate secondary forest, Northeast China. The closure process can be described through quadratic functions, which showed the closure rates slowed down with gap ages. Large gaps had a higher closure rate (39 m a) than middle gaps (25 m a) and small gaps (11 m a). According to the quadratic equations, the lateral growth could last 11, 13 and 16 years for small, middle and large gaps with a remaining size of 12, 69 and 223 m, respectively. As expected, regeneration exhibited the highest seedling density and volume in large gaps. There was no significant difference in regeneration density between middle gaps, small gaps and forest understory in the final investigation; but the volume of regenerated woody species increased significantly from small gaps to large gaps compared with forest understory. These results may provide references on the choice of appropriate gap sizes to promote the regeneration in temperate secondary forests.2 222222–12–12–12

Animal-dispersed pioneer trees enhance the early regeneration in Atlantic Forest restoration plantations

Planting of native trees has been adopted in many tropical regions worldwide as a central forest restoration method, but little is known concerning the role that these planted species play in catalyzing forest regeneration beneath their canopies. We investigated the role of animal-dispersed tree species in catalyzing the regeneration of woody species in the understory of restoration plantings. We assessed both the density and richness of tree seedlings within plots located beneath the canopy of both animal-dispersed and abiotic-dispersed tree species planted in three riparian forest restoration sites with ages of five, six and eight years. The proportion of animal-dispersed tree seedlings increased with plantation age. The richness of animal-dispersed tree seedlings was higher beneath animal-dispersed trees in the eight-year-old planting. The density of animal-dispersed tree seedlings was higher under animal-dispersed trees when sites were analyzed altogether. The top three species in regeneration density beneath the canopy were animal-dispersed trees, and from the top ten, seven were animal-dispersed species. We suggest that animal-dispersed pioneer trees which facilitate natural regeneration and promote a high density and richness of woody species beneath their canopies should be considered as “framework” species for tropical forest restoration.