Fire Wood Research Articles

Indirect Methods to Determine the Risk of Damage to the Health of Firefighters and Children Due to Exposure to Smoke Emission from Burning Wood/Coal in a Controlled Environment.

People are constantly exposed to particulate matter and chemicals released during fires. However, there are still few studies on gas and particulate emissions related to exposure to burning firewood and charcoal during forest fires, making it difficult to understand the effects on the health of the population. The objective of this study was to quantify the metal(loid)s present in the smoke from wood and charcoal fires through the deposition of metals in beef topside and pork loin, considering the routes of skin exposure, inhalation, and ingestion, contributing to the understanding of metals in the increase of the risks of cancer and mortality associated with firefighting and children. The concentrations of metals [aluminum (Al), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V), zinc (Zn)] and metalloids arsenic (As) were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP OES) after microwave digestion. Moreover, we assessed the associated risk regarding the elemental intake of these elements through the smoke, using the hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), Total Hazard Index (HIt), and carcinogenic risk (CR). All samples had results for HQ and HIt < 1, indicating a non-potential health risk. However, the carcinogenic risks posed by As and Cr via the three exposure pathways (except for inhalation exposure to children and adults, and by Cr via ingestion and inhalation for children and adults) exceeded the standard threshold. In conclusion, continuous exposure of firefighters or children to smoke from fires containing high concentrations of heavy metals such as As and Cr can be harmful to health. The study used animal tissues; thus, new methods must be developed to quantify the concentration of heavy metals deposited in human tissue when humans are exposed to smoke from fires.

ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN HORO DISTRICT, HORO GUDURU WOLLEGA ZONE OF OROMIA REGION, ETHIOPIA

An Ethinobotanical study of medicinal plants was carried out from September 2019 to June 2020 in Horo district, Horo Guduru Wollega Zone of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. The study focused on the investigation of the traditional uses of medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge of the local people in the study area. A total of 70 informants (50 males and 20 females) aged between 20 -100 years were randomly selected from five kebeles.Out of these 10 key informants were selected by purposing sampling method based on information obtained from the local people and as well as own back ground information. Relevant information were collected by using semi-structured interview, guided field walk, group discussion and market survey. The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics, Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), preference ranking, paired comparision and Direct matrix ranking. A total of 112 medicinal plant species which distributed across 104 Genera 50 families were identified. Of these a large number of medicinal plants were collected from the wild 70(62.5%), where as 42(37.5%) from home gardens. Asteraceae consisted of 10 species followed by Solonacieae with 9 species. About 80(71.43%) of medicinal plants were reported for treatment of humans, while 20(17.86%) were for livestock ailments. In addition,12(10.71%)were reported for treatment of both human and livestock ailments. In the study area, leaves (47.61%) and roots (21.43%) were the two most frequently utilized plant parts for preparation of remedies.Crushing which accounted for 27.94% waidely used method of preparation of traditional medicine in the study area. This is followed by powdering (26.47%) where as, large numbers of the medicinal plants were cited to be used in fresh forms, few were used dry. The most common mode of administration was found to be oral (61.03%) followed by dermal accounted for (29.41%). The different use categories of medicinal plant taxa in the area included food, firewood, charcoal, construction and forage. Major conservation threats included agricultural expantion, overgrazing, fire wood collection, charcoal production, cutting down trees for construction and furniture .There was no record that indicated the sever concervation impacts of overharvesting of medicinal plants and their parts in the current study area. In addition, to the aforementioned positive attitude of the local communities to the conservation of natural resources, supplementary environmental education with regared to sustainable uses of medicinal plants could be useful.

ОБҐРУНТУВАННЯ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ СПУЧУЮЧОГО ПОКРИТТЯ ДЛЯ ВОГНЕЗАХИСТУ ДЕРЕВ’ЯНИХ СПОРУД

The analysis of fire-resistant materials for wooden building structures was carried out and the need for the development of reliable means of protection to inhibit the ignition process and the spread of flame on the surface of the building structure was established. Therefore, there is a need to determine the conditions for the formation of a barrier for thermal conductivity and to establish a mechanism for inhibiting the transfer of heat to the material. According to experimental data, it was established that the untreated sample ignited for 52 s, the flame spread throughout the sample within 100 s, on the other hand, the sample, fire-protected with the impregnation solution BS-13, ignited for 570 s, the flame spread over the surface only in the first section, the maximum temperature of flue gases was 86 °C, and the flammability index was 3.42. For the sample protected by the "FIREWALL-WOOD" coating, the fire did not occur, because a protective layer of pinocoke was formed on the surface, the flammability index was 0. As a result of research, it was proven that the process of temperature inhibition consists in the decomposition of flame retardants under the influence of temperature with the absorption of heat and the release of non-combustible gases. Formation of soot-like products on the surface of natural combustible material and thermal insulation of a wooden structure. Thanks to this, it became possible to determine the conditions of fire protection of wood, by forming a barrier for thermal conductivity during the decomposition of varnish into foam coke. Experimental studies have confirmed that a sample of wood covered with a fire-resistant coating has withstood temperature effects under the influence of heat flow for 600 seconds. This gives reason to assert the possibility of targeted regulation of wood fire protection processes through the use of fire retardant coatings capable of forming a protective layer on the surface of the material that inhibits the rate of wood burning.

Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentrations on Fish Flesh Smoked Using Polythene Products

Fish continues to be the main source of animal protein worldwide, yet trace metal pollution endangers them. Trace metal pollution originates from nature and human activities and poses public health risk to consumers of these fish. This study was conducted using fresh fish samples weighing 600g. Fish samples were divided into four groups: Group I: fresh fish sample not roasted (Control); Group II consisted of fish roasted with fire wood (FRF); Group III had fish roasted with waste vehicle tyres (FRT) and Group IV were fish roasted with plastic materials (FRP). Roasting time was four hours at high temperature. Trace metals {cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and copper (Cu)} were determined using acid digestion and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric. Results revealed the highest cadmium value (0.81±0.042 mg/kg) in fish samples roasted with waste vehicle tyres. This was followed by fish roasted with plastic materials (0.715±0.021 mg/kg) and thereafter, fish roasted with firewood (0.59±2.51mg/kg). The highest zinc (212.185±0.0 mg/kg) was recorded in fish roasted with plastic materials. This was followed by fish roasted with firewood (2.57±0.042 mg/kg). The mean values for iron were: FRT (7.965±0.035mg/kg), FRP (7.82±0.014mg/kg) and (6.705±0.035mg/kg) for FRF. Values for copper were 1.725±0.063mg/kg for FRT, 1.335±0.007mg/kg for FRP and 0.86±0.028mg/kg for FRF. Concentration of lead was negligible in FRF with higher values (1.485mg/kg) in FRF and (2.865mg/kg) in FRT. Fish in control group had no metal deposit in their tissues. The results of the present study have revealed that cadmium and lead concentrations in the muscles of all fish samples roasted with waste vehicle tyres and plastic materials were above permissible limits of 0.5 mg/kg set by European Commission. Thus, using these materials to generate heat in fish smoking is of great public health concern. Individuals and authorities at the Local, State and Federal level should co-operate to expose this unhealthy practice and devise strategies to eliminate it.

THE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION METHOD FOR FIRE PREVENTIVE CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN EXTERIOR WALLS INFILLED WITH COMBUSTIBLE INSULATION

The performance evaluation method for wooden fire preventive construction with combustible insulation in the Ministerial approval procedure has been significantly rationalized, as the rating for fire preventive performance have been clarified according to the insulation material property at high temperature. The following technical knowledge made this rationalization possible. Under the condition that the insulation material is protected by interior and exterior fire resistive materials, combustible insulation does not burn intensely, but melts and thermally decomposes from the heated side. Therefore, the fire preventive performance of the exterior wall does not decrease even if combustible insulation is used.

Study on the Minimum Fire-Extinguishing Concentration of Several Commonly Used Extinguishing Agents to Suppress Pyrolysis Gas of Red Pine Wood.

The suppression of forest wood burning has been one of the important research directions in the field of solid combustible fire safety. The process of forest wood flame propagation is a coupled process of solid-phase pyrolysis and gas-phase combustion chemical reactions; therefore, as long as the solid-phase pyrolysis or gas-phase combustion can be suppressed, the forest wood flame propagation can be suppressed and an important contribution can be made to the subsequent suppression of forest wood fires. Previous studies have focused on the inhibition of solid-phase pyrolysis of forest wood, so this paper examines the effectiveness of several common fire suppressants for suppressing forest wood gas-phase flames, starting with the inhibition of forest wood gas-phase combustion. In this paper, for the convenience of the study, we narrowed the scope of the research object to the previous research ideas for gas fires, established a simplified small-scale flame model for forest wood fire suppression, took red pine wood as the research object, analyzed the pyrolysis gas components after high-temperature pyrolysis, and constructed a Cup burner suitable for N2, CO2, fine water mist, and NH4H2PO4 powder to extinguish the pyrolysis gas flame of red pine wood, respectively. The experimental system, together with the 9306 fogging system and the improved powder delivery control system, shows the process of extinguishing fuel flames such as red pine pyrolysis gas at 350, 450, and 550 °C with various types of fire-extinguishing agents on this device. It was found that the flame morphology was related to the composition of the gas and the type of extinguishing agent. At the same time, NH4H2PO4 powder appeared to burn above the cup mouth when pyrolysis gas interacted with it at 450 °C, but this phenomenon did not occur when other extinguishing agents interacted with it and only appeared when pyrolysis gas interacted with it at 450 °C, so it was judged that this phenomenon was related to the CO2 content of the gas component and the type of extinguishing agent. The study found that the four extinguishing agents extinguish red pine pyrolysis gas flame MEC value. There's a big difference. The worst performance is N2. Compared with N2 suppression of red pine pyrolysis gas flame, CO2 suppression effectiveness is 60% higher, but compared to the suppression effectiveness of fine water mist and far away, the suppression effectiveness of fine water mist is much higher than the suppression effectiveness of CO2. However, the difference in effectiveness between fine water mist and NH4H2PO4 powder is almost double. In summary, in the suppression of red pine gas-phase flame, four kinds of fire-extinguishing agents are ranked as follows: N2 < CO2 < fine water mist < NH4H2PO4 powder. Finally, the suppression mechanism of each type of extinguishing agent was analyzed. The study of this paper can provide some data to support the extinguishing of open fires in forest fires or suppressing the rate of forest fire spread.

Forest Fire Detection and Notification Method Based on AI and IoT Approaches

There is a high risk of bushfire in spring and autumn, when the air is dry. Do not bring any flammable substances, such as matches or cigarettes. Cooking or wood fires are permitted only in designated areas. These are some of the regulations that are enforced when hiking or going to a vegetated forest. However, humans tend to disobey or disregard guidelines and the law. Therefore, to preemptively stop people from accidentally starting a fire, we created a technique that will allow early fire detection and classification to ensure the utmost safety of the living things in the forest. Some relevant studies on forest fire detection have been conducted in the past few years. However, there are still insufficient studies on early fire detection and notification systems for monitoring fire disasters in real time using advanced approaches. Therefore, we came up with a solution using the convergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) and You Only Look Once Version 5 (YOLOv5). The experimental results show that IoT devices were able to validate some of the falsely detected fires or undetected fires that YOLOv5 reported. This report is recorded and sent to the fire department for further verification and validation. Finally, we compared the performance of our method with those of recently reported fire detection approaches employing widely used performance matrices to test the achieved fire classification results.

Assessment of Heavy Metal Residues in Hides of animals Singed with Tyres, and Public Health Implications Associated with such Practice in Lokoja Metropolis

The safety of food has been an issue of concern in developing countries like Nigeria where the processing method can pose some environmental health challenge. The use of scrap automobile tires to singe meat has been reported to possess some toxic materials that can pose health challenge to humans. Hence, this study was conducted to determine the concentration of heavy metals in meat singed with fire wood and scrap tires in Lokoja, Nigeria. Samples of cattle hides singed with firewood and scrap tires were collected from four (4) different abattoirs and analyzed for the concentration of Cu, Pb, Fe and Zn using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. There was significant increase in the concentration of Cu, Zn and Pb of the cattle hides singed with firewood and scrap tires when compared to the unsinged. The concentration of heavy metals for firewood singed cattle hide is within recommended Maximum Permissible Levels (MPLs) of the European Commission Regulations while the concentration of scrap tires is above the recommended Maximum Permissible Levels (MPLs) of the European Commission Regulations for Cu, Zn and Fe. Though there was increase in the concentration of Fe it is within the recommended Maximum Permissible Levels. The presence of heavy metals concentration above the permissible levels in cattle hides singed with scrap tires makes it unsafe for human consumption hence safer method should be adopted by the abattoirs.

Fireproofing of wooden buildings (Part 2) Certification of fire retardant wood

Fireproofing of wooden buildings (Part 2) Certification of fire retardant wood

TECHNOLOGICAL AND NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CATTLE FEET AND HEADS CONSUMED IN OUAGADOUGOU

Background:Beef feet and heads, prepared in soup or incorporated into sauces, are widely consumed in Ouagadougou. However, very little scientific information exists on the nutritional quality of these beef co-products offered to consumers.This study focused on determining the technological and nutritional characteristics of smoked feet and heads, as well as dried bovine feet soldin Ouagadougou. Methods: Production monitoring was carried out at the Bouzoutyaar market in order to describe the processing of beeffeet and heads intended for human consumption. Twenty samples were then collected and analysed for macronutrient and mineral content using standard methods. Results:The processing technology for beeffeet and heads is artisanal and based on the steps of grillingfeet and heads on a grid over a wood fire and removing the hair with blades or knives. The average fat and protein contents (g/100 g) of beef feet and heads samples ranged from 6.83 to 10.98 and from 18.16 to 21.37 respectively. The average iron, zinc and magnesium contents (mg/100g) ranged from 8.87 to 19.66, 1.42 to 1.86 and 7.12 to 20.11 respectively. Conclusion:Results showed that beef feet and head meat are fatty meats, rich in protein and iron. The consumption of these products is increasing over time and it would be very important for the actors to be trained on processing technologies for these products in order to guarantee safe products for human consumption. This processing site requires a waste management plan to avoid microbial contamination of these meat co-products.

An Appropriate Technology Approach for Utilizing Plastic Waste Derived Cooking Fuel to Reduce Indoor Air Pollution from Solid Fuel Cooking

Combating the environmental crisis caused by mismanaged plastic waste is a global challenge, especially in developing regions due to a lack of recycling availability and waste management infrastructure. One way communities can combat this challenge is by using the process of slow pyrolysis to convert plastic waste into liquid cooking fuel. Using this fuel in cookstoves can help combat the public health issue caused by breathing in smoke from a cooking fire. Open fire cooking remains a common means of cooking in the developing world, and long-term exposure to smoke can lead to chronic lung and eye health problems. The burden of these health problems falls disproportionately on women. Our hypothesis is that switching from wood fire cooking to using stoves fueled by liquid fuel produced from waste plastic will have a positive impact on indoor air pollution, including particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. To test this hypothesis, a series of experiments to measure particulate emissions, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide were conducted. Cookstoves similar to those used in households in developing countries were used when conducting experiments. The results of these experiments indicated that polyfuel produces less particulate than fire wood, with an average PM2.5 of 7.7 μg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; compared with fire wood which had a PM2.5 of 325.6 μg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. Polyfuel also produces no sulfur dioxide emissions. Kerosene, which is a traditional cooking fuel in much of the world, produced sulfur dioxide emissions of 5.2 ppm under the experimental conditions. If implemented globally, the results of this research suggest that converting plastic waste into cooking fuel can not only reduce the amount of plastic waste entering the ecosystem but can also combat the global public health problems caused by open fire cooking.

Experimental study of flame extinguishing of red pine wood pyrolysis gas by NH4H2PO4 powder based on Cup-burner

Suppression of forest fires has been one of the important research directions in the field of fire safety, ammonium phosphate and its mixture of inhibitors commonly used in solid combustible fires, for forest fire scenarios, also has a good fire suppression effectiveness, inexpensive and easy to store, but also the current suppression of forest fires is one of the main inhibitors. However, there are few studies on the interaction between ammonium phosphate and forest fires. In this paper, to facilitate the study, we enter the previous research ideas for gas fires, reduce the scale of the research object, establish a small-sized simplified flame model for suppressing wood fires, take red pine wood as the research object, analyze the pyrolysis gas components after high-temperature pyrolysis, and construct the Cup-burner experimental system, together with an improved powder delivery control system, so that the process of NH4H2PO4 powder quenching fuel flames such as red pine pyrolysis gas at 350 °C, 450 °C and 550 °C was well presented on this device. It was found that the flame morphology was not only related to the gas composition but also the amount of NH4H2PO4 powder added and the particle size; the Minimum fire extinguishing concentration(MEC) value was not only related to the gas composition but also the particle size of NH4H2PO4 powder. This is because the CO2 content decreases and the H2 and CH4 content increase significantly in the gas composition at 550 °C compared to the 450 °C gas composition. Among the same pyrolysis gas components, the MEC value gradually increased as the particle size of NH4H2PO4 powder decreased, and the MEC value of 30 μm–40μm particle size powder was the lowest, and the difference between the particle size MEC value and the other two particle sizes was large, while the difference between the MEC values of 20 μm–30μm particle size powder and 10 μm–20μm particle size powder was small; according to the Cup-burner test The chemical thermodynamic analysis was carried out according to the results of the Cup-burner test to obtain the proportion of NH4H2PO4 powders playing a physical role in fire extinguishing. When NH4H2PO4 powder is involved in syngas/air combustion, the end product is P2O5 and xsp = 2.35%. When the end product is HPO3, xsp = 7.29%. The products were collected after the interaction of NH4H2PO4 powder with the synthesis gas flame, and the analysis of the products revealed that the products were sticky and not dry solids, and the material analysis of them revealed that they contained more HPO3 and its mixture, which shows that the physical heat absorption played a greater role when NH4H2PO4 powder interacted with the synthesis gas flame.

Association of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in moss with blood biomarker among nearby residents in Portland, Oregon.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are air pollutants that are costly to measure using traditional air-quality monitoring methods. We used an epiphytic bio-indicator (moss genus: Orthotrichum) to cost-effectively evaluate atmospheric deposition of PAHs in Portland, Oregon in May 2013. However, it is unclear if measurements derived from these bioindicators are good proxies for human exposure. To address this question, we simultaneously, measured PAH-DNA adducts in blood samples of non-smokers residing close to the sites of moss measurements. We accounted for individual determinants of PAH uptake that are not related to environmental air quality through questionnaires, e.g., wood fires, consumption of barbecued and fried meats. Spearman rank correlation and linear regression (to control for confounders from the lifestyle factors) evaluated the associations. We did not observe evidence of an association between PAH levels in moss and PAH-DNA adducts in blood of nearby residents (e.g., all correlations p≥0.5), but higher level of adducts were evident in those who used wood fire in their houses in the last 48 hours. It remains to be determined whether bio-indicators in moss can be used for human health risk assessment.

Nondestructive prediction of fire performance in fire retardant-treated wood using x-ray computed tomography

The fire performance of fire retardant-treated wood can be evaluated based on how much of the chemical retardant is used. Therefore, methods for identifying chemical content in wood are needed. Stereo images of wood samples before and after the fire retardant treatment were captured using micro-focus X-ray computed tomography. Image brightness values, indicating concentration, were calculated using binarized images sliced from the X-ray images. Changes in integrated brightness values before and after treatment showed a strong positive correlation with chemical content at a 1% significance level. The chemical content of the retardant-treated wood was predicted based on the relationship between the two. The predicted values were in agreement with the values measured using the leaching method. Fire performance tests of the fire retardant-treated wood were conducted using a cone calorimeter. The treated wood was classified as fire-retardant and non-combustible wood. In addition, the fire performance predicted by the relationship between changes in integrated brightness values and chemical content agreed with the classification by the fire performance test. These findings suggest that X-ray computed tomography can be potentially used to predict the chemical content of fire retardant-treated wood.

Bioinspired, stable adhesive Ti3C2Tx MXene-based coatings towards fire warning, smoke suppression and VOCs removal smart wood

Wood is an essential material widely used in a broad variety of daily life and industry. The development of an ecofriendly and smart wood towards potential environmental hazards such as fire hazards and air pollution still remains a huge challenge. Here, we report a bioinspired, stable adhesive, multifunctional coating for scalable construction of smart wood based on Ti3C2TX MXene network intercalated with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). Polydopamine (PDA) is introduced as an intermediate adhesive bridge that possesses hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and mechanical interlocking interactions to facilitate stable bonds of the MXene-based fire warning coating on wood surface. By constructing an intercalated architecture, CNC can not only solve the re-stacking of MXene nanosheets, but also serve as a thermoswitch that keep insulative mediator at room temperature, and promote the transport of electron triggered at higher temperature or on fires. During combustion, the MXene-based coating provides a denser, expanded physical barrier, captures the free radicals, and ultimately prevents the escape of smoke. Therefore, the optimized CNC/MXene coating exhibits high adhesion, sensitive fire response time (∼2.1 s), superior flame retardancy (LOI of 47.4 %, UL-94 V0 rate, and average heat release rate of 54.70 kW/m2), and excellent smoke suppression (total smoke rate of 119.9 m2/m2, peak CO2 production of 0.251 g/s, and peak CO production of 0.0037 g/s). In addition, smart wood has the potential photocatalysis oxidation capacity for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) removal (formaldehyde gas, 51 % removal rate within 60 min). This work puts forward a prospective strategy to fulfill multifunctional and high-performance coatings that simultaneously enhance the overall performance of wood, thus significantly contributing to expand its practical applications.

The Southern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys volans) in Lincoln, Nebraska

The southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) is considered a species of greatest conservation need in Nebraska and listed as threatened in the state. Historically, the geographic range of the southern flying squirrel in Nebraska has been restricted to five eastern counties from a northern suburb of Omaha, Douglas Co., southward in the four counties of Sarpy, Otoe, Nemaha, and Richardson, all bordering the Missouri River on the east. In late November of 2018, a resident of Lincoln, Lancaster Co., Nebraska, contacted the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission about an animal found dead in his yard. This animal proved to be a southern flying squirrel, which was 50 to 70 miles [80 to112 km] west of the known geographic range of the species. Two additional individuals were subsequently observed at the original residence as were individuals in at least a total of 10 neighborhoods throughout the city of Lincoln. Clearly, a population of the southern flying squirrels is established and reproducing in Lincoln, but their origin is unknown. The source of this city-dwelling population may be from released/escaped pets, a natural dispersal from the Missouri River via the Platte River and Salt Creek, or inadvertent translocation when moving timber or fire wood.

Can X-ray Diffraction Distinguish Natural from Anthropogenic Hematite? Replication of the Conversion of Natural Goethite in Both Furnace and Campfire

Hematite, the mineral that gives color to bright red iron ochres, occurs naturally, but there is much evidence that early humans sometimes artificially produced hematite by heating a related mineral, goethite, in wood fires. This represents an important cognitive and technological advance in early human prehistory. Thus, there is a need to distinguish natural hematite from hematite generated by heating goethite in a wood fire. Measuring the line widths of powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) in hematite has been explored, and synthetic goethite heated in a modern furnace has been used as a model system for studying this process. We now show that to be an inappropriate model. Although chemically identical, natural goethite is physically different from and much more variable than goethite produced in a laboratory. Furthermore, by replicating the process using Stone Age technology, we show that heating goethite in a wood fire complicates the interpretation of XRD line widths of the resulting hematite. We conclude that strategies other than powder XRD are necessary to draw conclusions about the ancient processing of iron ochres.

The Dead Children

The Dead Children Sabina Murray (bio) You said it was his heart?" she asked. "A massive coronary. Surprised everyone." "That is very sad," Judith said. She hadn't known Anton Galchek well, but anyone's death was sobering. Judith nodded, signaling an end to the conversation, although that seemed an elevated term for their exchange. It was a Friday, 5 p.m., and already dark. The department meeting had been mercifully short and other faculty members lingered chatting on the library steps, as if the half hour handed back to them needed to be immediately squandered. Some of the younger instructors would, no doubt, be heading for a drink at one of the local bars, but they wouldn't ask her to join. And she wouldn't go anyway. There was a detective show that she was slowly working through on Netflix and that was calling to her, but perhaps she'd stop by her office and finish the last three papers that needed grading. Then tomorrow would be free, and she could use the time to get a jump on her paper, a fluff piece on servants—Mrs. Danvers from Rebecca and Mrs. Grose from Turn of the Screw—that she was presenting at an on-campus symposium the following semester. Also, Judith was not quite ready to go home. She crossed the quad to Carew Hall, noting the drop in temperature. Somewhere, a wood fire was burning and the scent of it tinged the air. A smell like that could use a glass of red wine, she thought. Judith had just fished her ID out of her wallet and was touching it to the security pad to let her into the building, when she heard the woman call out. "Judie," came the woman's voice, "Judie Denlow." Judith had turned, alarmed by two intimacies: the first, her name shortened to Judie, the second, the Australian accent. The woman was standing half-lit in the streaming lamplight. She was wearing a knee-length floral dress, a coat of hard tweed, and sensible shoes. A sensible black handbag hung on her shoulder. "Do we know each other?" Judith asked. "We did," she said. The woman must have been near 70. And there was something familiar about her, which Judith found unsettling. "How can I help you?" "I'm not sure you can," said the woman. "It has been a long time, but [End Page 71] you two were so close. She'd be your age now, although I don't think she'd be a professor. You were always the more clever of the two. The cleverest girl in the school. Everyone thought so." But not pretty, not nice. She did know this woman, although it had been 40 years since she'd seen her. Judith was flooded with cold, unforgiving adrenaline. "Mrs. Begley, am I right?" said Judith. "That's right," said the woman, but she made no move to come closer, just stood washed by light, her bare face raised with an accusing vulnerability. "What brings you to Vermont?" "I wanted to see the sights," said Mrs. Begley. "And is the college one of them?" Judith forced a smile. "No. Actually, I just wanted to see you." The woman held her eyes, unblinking. Perhaps a cup of tea would do it. Just some tea, a little reminiscence of her childhood in Perth, and then the woman would be on her way. But where? The two restaurants that doubled as coffee shops and bars would no doubt be bustling because of the meeting, and Judith had no desire to be sitting with this odd relic of her childhood under the watchful gaze of her colleagues. "Where are you staying?" asked Judith. "Are you at the hotel?" "Yes. It's very nice," said Mrs. Begley. "Perhaps I could make us some tea at home, and then drop you after? I do have some grading, but it would be a shame not to catch up, if only for an hour." "That's very kind of you," said the woman. But her eyes had narrowed when Judith indicated that their proceedings would be finite, that she had an hour but no...

Anthropogenic and natural factors influencing African World Heritage sites

Abstract The article presents anthropogenic and natural factors influencing African World Heritage sites. The analysis was based on the data contained in the Conservation Outlook Assessments for 2020, including all sites on the African continent where natural values are protected, i.e., both natural (38) and mixed sites – natural and cultural (6). The assessment of current and potential threats and effectiveness of protection and management included 57 items, each of which was analyzed concerning all African properties. The results show that the African World Heritage sites are subject to various pressures from human activity and natural factors. The most common current threat is hunting and trapping, found in 33 sites. The spread of invasive (alien) species in 21 areas is second. Common threats (reported in 15-17 sites) include livestock farming and grazing, logging and wood collecting, fires, tourism, mining, and crops. The most frequently mentioned potential threats are mining, oil/gas exploration, construction of dams, and various effects of climate change – droughts, flooding, temperature extremes, and habitat shifting. The effectiveness of protection and management is not satisfactory. There are serious concerns related to law enforcement, sustainable finance, staff capacity, training, and development. Some concerns are directed to monitoring, tourism and visitation management, boundaries, and effectiveness of the management system. Results of a review show that, of all natural and mixed World Heritage sites in Africa for three areas, the conservation outlook is assessed as good, 15 – good with some concerns, 14 – significant concerns, and 12 – critical. In 2020, as many as 11 “in danger” sites were listed in Africa. At that time, there were 17 sites around the World in danger, i.e. as many as 70% of them were in Africa.

Investigation of forced flow orientations on the burning behaviours of wooden rods using a synchronised multi-imaging system

The burning behaviour of a wooden rod under various forced flow conditions was investigated by employing a synchronised multi-imaging system integrating visible wavelength, short-wavelength infrared (SWIR), and Schlieren techniques. The wood samples were fixed horizontally and at an inclined angle to study the effect of the surface orientation under forced flow. A small-scale wind tunnel was developed to supply three types of forced flow: concurrent, opposed and cross flow. Each imaging technique helps to gain different physical insights of different aspects of the phenomenon. The combined data provides a comprehensive understanding of the flow effect on fire propagation. It was found that the forced flow strongly influences the often-invisible hot gas flow surrounding the burning rod. The heat feedback from the attached hot flow layer helped to maintain the surface temperature, which further influenced the burning behaviour. The mechanisms that the various flow orientation caused, affected the heated gas differently. Additionally, a method was proposed to monitor the burning process, which used thermal imaging to quantitatively calculate the area of pyrolysis zone on the surface. With the visualisation of the Schlieren images at the critical timings, it was found the thick hot gas flow underneath the wooden rod was a crucial factor that determined the intensity of burning, which may provide important guidance on effective wooden beam fire suppression and control.