Refugee Women Research Articles

Navigating challenges: a socioecological analysis of sexual and reproductive health barriers among Eritrean refugee women in Ethiopia, using a key informant approach

ObjectivesThe study aimed to explore the experiences and perceptions of healthcare providers (HCPs) regarding the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) challenges of Eritrean refugee women in Ethiopia.DesignA qualitative exploratory design...

Refugee women’s and providers’ perceptions of person-centered maternity care: a qualitative study in two refugee camps in Chad

BackgroundGlobally, mistreatment of women during labor and delivery is a common human rights violation. Person-centered maternity care (PCMC), a critical component of quality of care, is respectful and responsive to an individual’s needs and preferences. Factors related to poor PCMC are often exacerbated in humanitarian settings.MethodsWe conducted a qualitative study to understand Sudanese refugee women’s experiences, including their perceptions of quality of care, during labor and delivery at the maternities in two refugee camps in eastern Chad, as well as maternity health workers’ perceptions of PCMC and how they could be better supported to provide this. In-depth interviews were conducted individually with 22 women who delivered in the camp maternities and five trained midwives working in the two maternities; and in six dyads with a total of 11 Sudanese refugee traditional birth attendants and one assistant midwife. In addition, facility assessments were conducted at each maternity to determine their capacity to provide PCMC.ResultsOverall, women reported positive experiences in the camp maternities during labor and delivery. Providers overwhelmingly defined respectful care as patient-centered and respect as being something fundamental to their role as health workers. While very few reported incidents of disrespect between providers and patients in the maternity, resource constraints, including overwork of the providers and overcrowding, resulted in some women feeling neglected.ConclusionsDespite providers’ commitment to offering person-centered care and women’s generally positive experiences in this study, one of few that explored PCMC in a refugee camp, conflict and displacement exacerbates the conditions that contribute to mistreatment during labor and delivery. Good PCMC requires organizational emphasis and support, including adequate working conditions and ensuring suitable resources so health workers can effectively perform.

The convergence of higher education and digital technologies for the sexual and reproductive health of women refugees: A narrative review

This narrative review delineates the barriers that women refugees and asylum seekers face regarding their sexual and reproductive health (SRH), exploring how digital tools and higher education play transformative roles in facilitating information and communication pertaining to SRH. Further, this review explores the unique role that colleges and universities in the United States can play in leveraging digital technologies to support the healthcare needs of women migrants. The authors also lean into their own experiences as higher education teachers and practitioners to contextualize these findings and advocate for the health, rights and dignity of women and migrants. The article concludes that institutions of higher education (HEIs) are strategically positioned to provide services for and shape discourse surrounding women migrant SRH. By investing in and expanding online resources, counselling and telehealth services, multilingual literacy programmes and other support platforms, as well as by centring migrant and transnational epistemologies, HEIs in the United States can be key support systems for forced migrants, empowering these students to make informed choices about their bodies and sexualities, access vital care and thrive in their new communities. This narrative review recommends future research and practice at the intersections of refugee studies, digital technologies and higher education.

Comparison of perinatal and neonatal results of grand multipar refugee women under 35 years of age

Comparison of perinatal and neonatal results of grand multipar refugee women under 35 years of age

Positing Women Volunteers as Planetary Humanists Amid Refugee Crisis: A Literary Perspective

The role of women is critical to both addressing the refugee crisis and promoting a planetary humanist perspective. By recognizing and valuing the contributions of women, we can work towards more equitable and sustainable solutions to global challenges. The paper attempts to explore the role of women as ‘volunteers’ who play a crucial role in supporting and assisting the refugees in Nadia Hashmi’s novel “when the moon is low” (2015). A lot of research has been carried out on women refugees in terms of trials and tribulations that they face in their migration journey including how their experiences as refugees are different from those of males taking into account factors such as race, ethnicity, religion, class, and sexuality, but no significant work has been done on the non-refugee women who volunteer themselves, both formally and informally, to support and assist the refugees on ground level. Such a concept presents a positive step towards a planetary humanist approach. Thus, the study proposes that it is paramount to consider the role of non-refugee women as volunteers in moving towards an all-inclusive planetary approach. To accomplish this, this paper aims to build a synapse between the notions of planetary humanism, refugee crisis, and volunteerism as presented by numerous theorists on the relevant areas such as Gilroy (2002), Phipps (2019), Lahusen, and Grasso (2018). Moreover, most of the work on volunteerism comprises field work based on quantitative analysis. This study however, applies this idea to the refugee narrative.

The epidemiology of gestational diabetes, gestation hypertension, and anemia in North Palestine from 2018 to 2020: A retrospective study.

In Palestine, women face a challenging environment and a demanding lifestyle, which puts them at a higher risk of experiencing complications during pregnancy. This study aimed to examine the risk factors linked with abnormal hemoglobin (Hb) levels, gestational diabetes (GD), and gestational hypertension (GH) among pregnant women. The results was compared between women residing in cities or villages areas and those in refugee camps. Medical records (N = 7889) for pregnant women at primary healthcare centers in the North West Bank were reviewed for sociodemographic and medical data along with the reported fasting blood sugar, hemoglobin, and blood pressure in the first and second trimesters from July 2018 to July 2020. However, only 6640 were included in the analysis as 1249 were excluded for having multiple pregnancy or lost to follow up. Complications and risk factors were defined according to the available global guidelines. Then, descriptive analysis was used to show the percentages of different risk factors and complications among them. The correlation between the several characteristics and variables with these complications was assessed by calculating the odds ratios (OR) using logistic regression. P-values of <0.05 were considered significant. The prevalence of adolescent pregnancy was the highest among women living in rural areas (9.8%) and grand multigravidity among refugee women (22%). The overall prevalence of anemia was higher in the second-trimester (16.2%) than in the first-trimester (11.2%), with anemic women in the first-trimester being more likely to be anemic in the second-trimester (OR = 8.223, P-value<0.001). Although anemia was less common in the first-trimester among refugees than among women living in urban areas (OR = 0.768, P-value = 0.006), it was more prevalent in the second-trimester (OR = 1.352, P-value<0.001). Moreover, refugee women were at lower risk than women living in urban areas of having GD (OR = 0.687, P-value<0.001) and diabetes mellitus (OR = 0.472, P-value<0.001) in the second-trimester. GH was associated with GD (OR = 1.401, P-value = 0.003) and DM (OR = 1.966, P-value<0.001). The findings of this study provide evidence-based data on the considerable prevalence of pregnancy complications, anemia, GD, and GH among Palestinian pregnant women living in the north of the West Bank. Multi gravida, gestational age, Hb levels, and the type of settings were strong predictors of pregnancy complications. Therefore, a national plan is needed to ensure adequate maternal care for all, especially disadvantaged women, those in rural areas and refugee camps.

Persistent depression in pregnant refugee and migrant women living along the Thai-Myanmar Border: a secondary qualitative analysis.

Antepartum depression affects around 15% of pregnant women worldwide, and may negatively impact their infants' physical, cognitive and social development, and confer a greater risk of emotional dysregulation in their children. Risk factors for antepartum depression disproportionately affect women from resource-sparse settings. In particular, pregnant refugee and migrant women face many barriers to diagnosis and care of mental health conditions, yet this group is under-represented in the literature. This study explores what refugee and migrant women living along the Thai-Myanmar border perceive as being contributory and protective factors to their antepartum depression, through secondary qualitative analysis of responses to clinical interviews for depression. Previous research investigating perinatal depression in pregnant refugee and migrant women on the Thai-Myanmar border involved assessing 568 women for depression, using the Structured Clinical Interview for the diagnosis of DSM-IV Disorders (SCID). This study analyses a subsample of 32 women, diagnosed with persistent depression during the antepartum period. Thematic analysis of responses to the SCID and social and demographic surveys was undertaken to investigate factors which contribute towards, or protect against, persistent antepartum depression. Major themes which women described as contributing towards persistent antepartum depression were financial problems, interpersonal violence, substance misuse among partners, social problems and poor health. Factors women considered as protecting mental wellbeing included social support, accessible healthcare and distractions, highlighting the need for focus on these elements within refugee and migrant settings. Commonly expressed phrases in local Karen and Burmese languages were summarised. Knowledge of factors affecting mental wellbeing in the study population and how these are phrased, may equip stakeholders to better support women in the study area. This study highlighted the limitations of contextually generic diagnostic tools, and recommends the development of tools better suited to marginalised and non-English speaking groups.

Impact of refugee women's entrepreneurship on socioeconomic outcomes and well-being: A scoping review

Purpose: The aim is to contribute to a broader and more nuanced understanding of the experiences and challenges these women face as entrepreneurs, to aid in the development of more effective supportive measures. Method: A scoping review methodology guided by the framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley and later refined by Levac et al., and PRISMA ScR reporting guidelines was conducted. We identified and synthesized themes from twelve pertinent articles that met our review criteria. Findings: Four overarching themes were identified that included (1) the contextual influences on entrepreneurship, (2) the constraints and barriers faced by refugee women entrepreneurs, (3) the resilience and resourcefulness displayed by these women, and (4) the outcomes of their entrepreneurship. These themes reveal the complex interplay of factors that shape the social, economic, and health impacts of entrepreneurship on refugee women. Discussion and Conclusion: This study underscores the urgent need for more rigorous scholarly attention to the area of refugee women’s entrepreneurship. While themes identified in this study align with previous literature, they have not been thoroughly addressed within a consolidated research framework in existing peer-reviewed studies. Therefore, our review is instrumental in augmenting the existing knowledge base and illuminating new directions for future scholarly investigation.

Refugee women: vulnerability x empowerment – brief reflections on brazilian assistance programs

The number of recognized refugees in Brazil in 2017 was approximately 10.145, among which 29% are women. Victims of multiple forms of violence, including sexual violence, assaults, harassment, trafficking, exploitation, refugee women find themselves in a situation of extreme vulnerability. Possessing factors such as gender issues and the status of refugee in your "disfavor", the re-integration into your social environment becomes even more difficult. Therefore, it is essential the creation and proper implementation of public policies aiming the protection and assistance of those victims. This work intents, therefore, to discuss the issues surrounding the situation of refugee women in Brazil, on the mapping of the aid programs destined to them in the country.

Improving Retention in Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Interventions: An Analysis of Completion Rates across a Multi-Site Trial with Refugee, Migrant, and Host Communities in Latin America.

Research on mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) interventions within refugee and migrant communities has increasingly focused on evaluating implementation, including identifying strategies to promote retention in services. This study examines the relationship between participant characteristics, study setting, and reasons for intervention noncompletion using data from the Entre Nosotras feasibility trial, a community-based MHPSS intervention targeting refugee, migrant, and host community women in Ecuador and Panama that aimed to promote psychosocial wellbeing. Among 225 enrolled women, approximately half completed the intervention, with varying completion rates and reasons for nonattendance across study sites. Participants who were older, had migrated for family reasons, had spent more time in the study community, and were living in Panamá (vs. Ecuador) were more likely to complete the intervention. The findings suggest the need to adapt MHPSS interventions to consider the duration of access to the target population and explore different delivery modalities including the role of technology and cellular devices as reliable or unreliable source for engaging with participants. Engaging younger, newly arrived women is crucial, as they showed lower completion rates. Strategies such as consulting scheduling preferences, providing on-site childcare, and integrating MHPSS interventions with other programs could enhance intervention attendance.

Trends and disparities in perinatal health outcomes among women from refugee backgrounds in Victoria, Australia: A population-based study

BackgroundWomen from refugee backgrounds generally experience poorer pregnancy-related outcomes compared to host populations. AimTo examine the trend and disparities in adverse perinatal outcomes among women of refugee background using population-based data from 2003 to 2017. MethodsA population-based cross-sectional study of 754,270 singleton births in Victoria compared mothers of refugee backgrounds with Australian-born mothers. Inferential statistics, including Pearson chi-square and binary logistic regression, were conducted. Multiple logistic regression was conducted to explore the relationship between adverse perinatal outcomes and the women's refugee status. FindingsWomen of refugee background had higher odds of adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes, including stillbirth, neonatal death, low APGAR score, small for gestational age, postpartum haemorrhage, abnormal labour, perineal tear, and maternal admission to intensive care compared to Australian-born women. However, they had lower odds of neonatal admission to intensive care, pre-eclampsia, and maternal postnatal depression. The trend analysis showed limited signs of gaps closing over time in adverse perinatal outcomes. Discussion and conclusionRefugee background was associated with unfavourable perinatal outcomes, highlighting the negative influence of refugee status on perinatal health. This evidences the need to address the unique healthcare requirements of this vulnerable population to enhance the well-being of mothers and newborns. Implementing targeted interventions and policies is crucial to meet the healthcare requirements of women of refugee backgrounds. Collaborative efforts between healthcare organisations, government agencies and non-governmental organisations are essential in establishing comprehensive support systems to assist refugee women throughout their perinatal journey.

The influence of health service interactions and local policies on vaccination decision-making in immigrant women: A multi-site Canadian qualitative study

ObjectivesResearch on immigrant and refugee vaccination uptake in Canada shows that immunization decisions vary by vaccine type, location, age and migration status. Despite their diversity, these studies often treat immigrant and refugee populations as a single group relative to other Canadians. In this comparative study, we explored how previous risk communication and immunization experiences influence immunization decisions by immigrant and refugee women from three communities across Canada. MethodsParticipants included women from the Punjabi immigrant community located in Surrey and Abbotsford, British Columbia (n = 36), the Nigerian immigrant community located in Winnipeg, Manitoba (n = 43), and the Congolese refugee community in Edmonton, Alberta (n = 18). Using focus groups guided by focused ethnography methodology, we sought to understand immunization experiences in Canada and before arrival, and what information sources influenced the immunization decision-making process by the women in the three communities. ResultsParticipants had differing past experiences in Canada and before their arrival that influenced how they used information in their vaccination decisions. Clear vaccination communications and dialogue with Canadian health care providers increased trust in Canadian health care and the likelihood of vaccine uptake. By contrast, weak vaccine recommendations and antivaccination information in the community prompted participants to decline future vaccines. ConclusionGiven our participants' different communication preferences and needs, we argue that a one-size-fits-all communication approach is inappropriate for immigrant and refugee populations. Instead, multi-pronged communication strategies are required to reach participants and respond to previous experiences and information that may lead to vaccination hesitancy.

Ukrainian refugee women’s experiences in Poland in the first months of Russian invasion: a qualitative account

ABSTRACT Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has become the world’s fastest-growing human displacement crises since World War II. Disconnected families, difficulties related to adaptation and integration to life in new conditions are far from a complete list of challenges and threats society and host communities are facing. The research focuses on Ukrainian refugee women, including mothers with children, who form an exceptionally vulnerable social group, since women must take on the responsibility for themselves and their children. Moreover, women, including mothers with children face serious dangers, such as human trafficking and the risk of falling into forced labor or sexual exploitation. The research is aimed at studying the adaptation potential of Ukrainian refugee women in Poland, analyzing the challenges, risks, threats and opportunities caused by the migration of a large number of people, in particular women and children. The article emphasizes on the exploration of the life and ways of survival of Ukrainian refugee women in the new social reality of Poland, a factual reality where women, including mothers with children, have to live. The article is based on data from qualitative research conducted in June-July 2022 in Warsaw by the author of the article. The collected material includes 32 interviews (IDI).

Unveiling silenced narratives: a scoping review on sexual function challenges in migrant and refugee women.

Of the approximately 281 million international migrants and 35.3 million refugees around the world, almost half are women. These individuals experience significant stress due to language barriers, financial difficulties, poor living and working conditions, and discrimination. Consequently, concerns related to sexuality may receive lower priority despite their significant impact on overall well-being. This scoping review aims to review the sexual function of migrant and refugee women and identify any knowledge gaps in the field. We conducted a scoping review following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses extension for Scoping Reviews). We searched online databases-Medline, Embase, Emcare, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane-and gray literature, with no restrictions on year of publication, language, or study design. Utilizing Covidence software, 2 authors screened and extracted data from studies based on predetermined eligibility criteria. A thematic analysis was executed, and findings were reported descriptively. Initially, we identified 5615 studies; after screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, we ultimately included 12 studies. The review identified a limited body of research with various unvalidated tools. Moreover, these studies yielded heterogeneous results: migrant women reported less sexual knowledge, experience, and liberal attitudes, resulting in lower rates of desire and arousal as compared with nonmigrants. Some studies showed lower sexual function in migrants, while others found no significant differences between migrants and nonmigrants. The assimilation into Western cultures may influence migrants' sexual attitudes and behaviors. Factors such as education and gender role ideology can also significantly affect sexual function among migrant populations. This review underscores the limitations in previous sexual function research, emphasizing the need for a more inclusive approach. It also offers valuable insights for codesigning programs to address sexual dysfunction among migrant and refugee women, improving their well-being. Future research should prioritize neglected populations and create culturally sensitive interventions to reduce sexual health disparities in migrants.

"I don't want my marriage to end": a qualitative investigation of the sociocultural factors influencing contraceptive use among married Rohingya women residing in refugee camps in Bangladesh

BackgroundThe timely provision of comprehensive contraceptive services to Rohingya women is impeded due to a lack of clarity and understanding of their traditional beliefs and cultural frameworks. Recognizing this challenge, our paper aims to explore the socio-cultural factors influencing the utilization of contraceptives among married Rohingya women living in the refugee camps of Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh.MethodA qualitative study was conducted in two unregistered Rohingya camps (Camp 7&14) located in Ukhiya Upazila, Cox's Bazar from January 10th to 20th, 2022. A total of 14 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) were conducted among married Rohingya women of reproductive age (15–49 years), along with 16 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) involving stakeholders engaged in reproductive healthcare provision. Participants were selected using purposive sampling. All interviews were conducted in the local language, recorded, transcribed verbatim, and subsequently translated into English. The data were analyzed using NVivo (Version 11), and the analysis process followed Neuman’s three-phase coding system.ResultsFive broad themes were identified: Sociocultural expectations and values attached to births, power imbalances within marital relationships, the role of religious beliefs, fear of side effects, and misperceptions about contraception. Having a larger number of children is viewed positively as it is believed that children play a crucial role in preserving the lineage and contributing to the growth of the Islamic population. Despite expressing an inclination towards contraception, the disapproval of husbands becomes a significant barrier for women. Defying their husbands' wishes can result in instances of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and even marriage dissolution within the camps. Moreover, the fear of side effects, such as a particular method would cause infertility, discourages women from using contraception. Many of these fears stem from myths, misconceptions, and mistrust in the existing medical system.ConclusionAddressing the socio-cultural barriers that prevent women from using modern contraception will have important public health implications. These findings can support in crafting culturally sensitive programs and educational interventions. These initiatives can assist Rohingya refugee women in planning their pregnancies and reducing high-risk pregnancies, ultimately leading to a decrease in maternal mortality rates within the community.

Between life course regimes and biographical orientations: labour market trajectories of refugee mothers in Germany from a gendered perspective

Abstract After arrival, refugees face the challenge of reordering their biographies in new social contexts that are framed by certain life course policies, institutionalised bureaucratic processes and norms. How do processes of adherence to and adaptation of familiar routines and orientations take shape among refugee women with care responsibilities in Germany? Following on from existing literature on life course, refugee and biographical research, this article enriches current research by adding a gender-sensitive analysis of the labour market trajectories of refugee mothers in Germany. Based on biographically oriented interviews with 22 women with children who fled to Germany from predominantly Arab countries between 2015 and 2020, two findings are presented and discussed: a) different phases of arrival framed by different life course policies and norms unfold in various bureaucratic settings, and b) three different labour market orientations and strategies depending on the women’s biographical orientations, their renegotiation in unfamiliar environments and the life stage the women currently find themselves in. The results provide new insights into the biographical trajectories of refugee women’s labour market participation and challenge a predominantly static view of this group as homogeneous in terms of qualifications, care responsibilities and employment aspirations.

Co-creating accompanying systems to improve adolescent girls' and women's access to services

Empowered Aid is a participatory action research project led by the Global Women's Institute (GWI) in partnership with humanitarian aid actors. It aims to prevent sexual abuse and exploitation (SEA) from occurring, through models that actively reduce power disparities and give girls and women sustained voices in how aid is delivered. Empowered Aid began working in Jordan in September 2022, in partnership with World Vision, to contextualize and scale up interventions arising from completed research in Uganda, Lebanon and Bangladesh. The Empowered Aid team worked with World Vision Jordan to consult refugee girls and women on the SEA-related risks they faced in Al Azraq camp when accessing aid services and centers, such as the “Road to Resilience” Peace Center – a space where educational and life-skills activities are organized to promote resilience for children and youth. This practice insight suggests a low-to no-cost participatory solution towards mitigating SEA and other GBV risks in accessing services, for example when girls and women are prevented from accessing non-governmental organizations' (NGO) services safely due to verbal and physical harassment by other camp residents. The underlying cause of this harassment are the power imbalances that limit the movement of girls and women, which must also be addressed through longer-term violence prevention and response programming that incorporates their contextual knowledge. Alongside such efforts, creating accompanying systems for girls and women can serve to quickly enhance their safety and access to services, while helping them feel more empowered and secure in navigating gender-unequal environments.

Does volunteering impact refugee women's life satisfaction, empowerment, and wellbeing? Experimental evidence, local knowledge, and causal reasoning

BackgroundThere are gaps in the evidence base addressing whether volunteering programs enhance the wellbeing, empowerment, and life satisfaction of individual volunteers. Program impacts are seldom rigorously evaluated, whilst construct meanings remain largely unspecified, especially in the Middle East. This study tested the impacts of We Love Reading, a program training volunteers to read aloud in their local communities. It also mapped local knowledge representation. MethodsWe conducted a mixed-method program evaluation based on a randomized cluster trial with 105 Syrian refugee women from poor households in Amman, Jordan. At three time points (baseline, 5-month and 12-month-follow-up), we implemented a survey to measure levels of life satisfaction (Cantril), psychological empowerment (PE), and psychological wellbeing (PWB). We used regression models on panel data to estimate individual-level impacts, adjusting for women's characteristics and the moderating effects of their social networks. We also conducted net-mapping sessions to clarify local concepts and their causal connections, generating thematic analyses and fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs) to represent local knowledge and causal influences. ResultsLife satisfaction was the only outcome variable showing a significant impact for We Love Reading (Cantril, β = 3.00, p = 0.002). Thematic analyses and FCMs made explicit the multi-dimensional aspects of lived experiences: emphasis was placed on reaching goals, having “the full right to act,” the freedom to take decisions, willingness and determination. Women explained that building their empowerment and agency was a main driver of life satisfaction, and that volunteering boosted the resolve of “not giving up” on life goals. ConclusionThis program evaluation integrates scientifically-rigorous and culturally-relevant methodologies to identify impacts, local knowledge systems, and causal pathways of influence. This helps clarify how and why volunteering works in real-life situations across cultural contexts, calling attention to what programs seek to achieve, how they avoid volunteer burden, and why they generate social change.

Epistemic Violence and Colonial Legacies in the Representation of Refugee Women: Contesting Narratives of Vulnerability and Victimhood

AbstractThe traditional drafting and subsequent implementation of international refugee law have been criticised for relying on a male-centric understanding of persecution. Whilst this framework has recently shifted to include a more gender-sensitive interpretation, I argue that this introduction of gender within refugee status determination has traditionally relied on narratives infused with gendered and racialised stereotypes. In particular, it relies on a ‘white saviour’ colonial narrative that perceives refugee women as vulnerable victims in need of saving. Drawing on a decolonial and critical epistemological analysis that includes both a race and gender dimension, I unpack the epistemic violence and hidden colonial legacies in the representation of refugee women in case-law. Ultimately, this article concludes with a call for reframing the legal narrative around refugee women by approaching them as political actors rather than oppressed and vulnerable subjects.

Between Charity and Neoliberalism: The Campaign for Funding Women's Refuges in Australia, 1974–1985

Abstract: Australia's first women's refuge was established in 1974, marking a crucial outgrowth of women's liberation activism that placed domestic violence on the public agenda. To maintain refuges, feminists seized opportunities presented by the progressive Gough Whitlam Labor government. This convergence between a reforming government and the women's movement meant that Australian feminist refuges were among the first in the world to receive state support, in 1975. Maintaining this support required feminist activists to engage with the Australian state. They framed their claims in two ways: they foregrounded women's traumatic narratives of experiences of domestic violence, and they asserted that refuges were a distinctive feminist service. Adapting to a constantly changing political context, however, advocates found it difficult to distinguish their activities from charitable refuges. Their emphasis on women's trauma foregrounded a victimized political subject while the movement's emphasis on fostering "self-help" was co-opted by advocates of neoliberal governance.