Women's Economic Activity Research Articles

Variations in the Occupational Structure and Gender Segregation in India and the States: Analysis Based on Census of India 2001 and 2011

The proportion of workers engaged in various occupations pictures the socio-economic development of a region. Occupational gender segregation is said to exist when women and men are distributed across occupations disproportionately without considering the nature of the distribution of occupations. According to the census of India, workers are distributed according to the occupation in which they are engaged into four broad categories namely, cultivators, agricultural labourer, household industrial workers and other workers. The main objective of the study is to measure the state occupational gender segregation, in this article; the occupational differentiation and segregation by sex are measured through different indices. The study showed that even though the regional distribution of occupations in the different states of India are more or less even, the occupational gender segregation exists in almost all the states in varying degrees. Throughout the states of India, male workers are more than female workers, however, the distribution of population by sex shows that almost equal proportion of both sexes are engaged in each state. Occupational gender wise integration is a sign of progress which ensures proportionate participation of women in economic activities. So, measures should be taken by the planners and policy makers to absorb more women in modern large enterprises and thereby expand economic development.

Dzietność a aktywność zawodowa kobiet w Polsce i innych krajach Unii Europejskiej w latach 2004–2014

The “new demography of Europe” is characterised by consolidation of the recovery process of generations below the generational replacement level (a pronounced decline in fertility rates to low levels), a longer human life span and increased professional activity among women. The new demography has been affected to a great extent by the current economic policies of EU countries, as well as the problems they have had providing for future growth and economic development. The aim of this article is to present and analyse the relationship between fertility and women’s professional participation in Poland and other EU countries in the period 2004–2014. The article contains a review of theories addressing the impact of having a child on the professional activity of women and an analysis of data from Eurostat statistics using simple statistical methods and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The results of the report Bilans kapitału ludzkiego w Polsce (The Study of Human Capital in Poland, 2015) show the influence of the number of children on the economic activity of women. As a result of the study, it is indicated that in the vast majority of EU countries, the employment rate for women is strongly linked to fertility levels. In Poland’s case, moreover, the number of children a woman has is a key factor in her economic activity – the higher the number of children, the lower her economic activity will be.

Assessment and Designing the Rural Women Participation in Domestic Occupations, According to Shirley Aniston ladder: Application of Structural Equation

Extended Abstract 1. INTRODUCTION Women are involved in various production activities and play an important role in family and the national-level economic. One of the important aspects of women's economic activity is domestic occupations. Domestic occupation is an occupation that launching with family members in the residential space. It is defined as an important strategy for creating jobs and incomes especially for women, around the world. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This research draws women participation in domestic occupations according to Sherry Ernestine ladder. In this research, the levels of participation is categorized based on the Sherry Ernestine ladder then past studies and structural equation model has been paid to study the factors affecting women's participation in domestic occupations. According to the Sherry Ernestine ladder of participation, there are eight types of or 8 steps; each step shows the strength of people in decision making. The first step of participation ladder is Manipulation and the second step is Therapy. These two-steps actually represents the lack of participation in decision making The third step of participation ladder is and fourth step is called Consultation and the fifth step of participation ladder is called Placation. Step 6 of participation ladder is called partnership the participants to be able to negotiate a deal with the government agencies. The seventh step is Delegated and the eighth step is called control. 3. METHODOLOGY This research is a quantitative and applied. In this research, descriptive-correlation method was used. The population was formed of rural women around the Kangavar city who used the self-employed loans to set up a domestic occupation. Census method was used based on a sample size. The main tool for research in the field was questionnaire that was made based on theoretical basis. Cronbach's alpha was used to estimate reliability. The rate of this index was 0.82 – 0.93, that shows we have a reliable questionnaire. A total of 168 questionnaires were filled out perfect. After completing the operation coding data, information extraction and transfer it was done on a computer. Statistical analysis (descriptive and inferential) was performed, after the data processing, by using SPSS and AMOS software. 4. DISCUSSION Ranking of the respondents was performed based on the Friedman test. Finding indicated that therapy, Informing and manipulation were in better condition among the other rural women participation components, while other elements of participation among rural women is declining and risky and women can be vulnerable in this area. The results showed rural women’s views and significant positive relationship between the external components like: socio-cultural, professional individual, institutional management, and economic participation of women in domestic occupations. The independent variables effects indicated that socio-cultural factors have the greatest positive effect in women participation (0.44) and economic factors have the least effect (0.14) on the dependent variable. Moreover, other relationship assessment show that economic and socio-cultural variables with the value of 0.45, have the greatest variance. This indicates that there is a significant positive relationship between the economic power of a person and his attention to social and cultural issues. In addition to the direct effects, the results indicate that socio-cultural and economic factors have a direct impact on the apparent participation rate and institutional - management has the greatest indirect effect (0.41). So, that in total variables involved in the model explained 76% of the participation variance. 5. CONCLUSION Based on the findings, the current plan is top-down decision without considering the real needs of rural women. Therapy is the first priority. There was a positive significant relationship among independent variables and participation and path analyses results show that economic, socio - cultural, professional and institutional - management components explain a total 76 percent of the women participation in domestic occupations. According to the results some recommendations presented: 1. Based on the findings, authorities and practitioners in the field of agricultural development and rural planners should be pushed to reduce this problem with the right planning and need assessment. 2. Promotion of society culture towards acceptance and expansion of women's participation in the development process of rural economic activities, especially domestic occupations planning, development projects and programs of rural development in the economic sector based on the rural women needs and priorities and encouraging them to participate in economic projects and reduce legal and institutional obstacles for them and legislation supported laws about women's participation in rural economic processes. 3. recommended to understand the real needs of rural women in the field of economics and management and engage them to participate in these programs by purposively needs assessment through focus groups. 4. According to the participation in step, recommended to launch domestic occupations associations in rural communities to produce programs in mass media, particularly for women, in order to meet their technical and technological needs.

맞벌이가정 아버지의 근로시간특성과 가족친화제도가 자녀양육참여에 미치는 영향

Fathers are increasingly expected to participate in parenting due to the higher participation of women in economic activities, the growing awareness of gender equality, and the greater emphasis on the role of fathers. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of paid work time and jobs’ family-friendly policies on parenting participation in dual-earner families. Questionnaires were distributed to 577 fathers of dual earner families through a child care center in the Gyeongsangbukdo Province, and the results were analyzed using SPSS 18.0 for Windows. The statistical methods employed included mean, standard deviation, the Pearson correlation analysis, and a multiple regression analysis. The main results are as follows. First, the fathers of dual-earner families showed an above average level of participation in parenting (3.26). By category, they were less involved (2.89) in household chores, and more active in daily guidance and leisure activities (3.48). Second, the most significant variable affecting fathers’ parenting participation was having a regular office-closing time. Fathers who were younger, had a higher level of education, had a regular office-closing time, had more vacation leave, and whose companies implemented family-friendly policies were more likely to participate more actively in parenting. Third, the key factors influencing fathers’ parenting participation by sub-category were found to be having a regular office-closing time and jobs with family-friendly policies. Fathers with a greater awareness of gender equality were more inclined to participate in household chores, while those who were younger and more educated actively participated in daily guidance and leisure activities.

한국 20 · 30대 여성의 직장 복식규범과 갈등 : 직장의 유형에 따른 현황조사를 중심으로

Abstract This study examined the fashion culture of 20-30s working women through clothing norm relationshipsin the workplace. A literature research was conducted along with qualitative research, in-depth interviews inorder to understand the domestic working environment and fashion culture such as lifestyle and consumerculture characteristics of 20-30s working women. The results were: First, it showed that the increased num-ber of members having various inclinations caused subcultures through an increase of women's economicactivities and transition to a knowledge-information society in domestic work places that changed into abusiness casual that recognized employees' autonomy and diversity. Second, in the working place, clothingnorms coexist as stipulated by statutes, company rules, and official documents as well as others implied byexperiences of sanction against members. Workplace closing norms are classified into norms of exposurethat draw attention to clothes and casual clothes. Third, it showed that factors pressuring clothing norms areclassified as external pressures and by spontaneous self-censorship that cause conflict and confusion withworking women's fashion according to the degree of pressure. Two kinds of pressure by others (or types ofdepartments and members) were observed.Key words: Clothing norm, 20 · 30s working women, Work place fashion culture, Normative conflict; 복식규범, 20 · 30대 직장 여성, 직장 패션문화, 규범갈등

Performing Muslim Womanhood: Muslim Business Women Moderating Islamic Practices in Contemporary Indonesia

ABSTRACTIslam is increasing its influence in contemporary Indonesia. What impact does this have on women's economic activity? In Indonesia there is a strong expectation that women should work. Working outside of the home, however, frequently poses a challenge for Muslim women, especially wives. The growing influence of Islamist (women's) groups in Indonesia strengthens conservative Islamic values to some extent. Nevertheless, a growing number of Muslim women in Indonesia are working to earn an income to meet their household's needs. As traditional Islamic teaching prescribes that men should be the main breadwinners for their family, and Indonesian Family Law (1974) also stipulates that husbands are the head of the household, economically successful married women have been put into an awkward position. In view of this development, this article explores how Indonesian middle-class Muslim women have been negotiating between their Islamic values and economic necessity. The article shows that the need to generate an income has led to working Muslim women moderating their Islamic values, enabling them to justify extending their responsibilities into the public domain. We argue that working Muslim women are playing a key role in moderating Islamic theological interpretations and perceptions of Islamic womanhood in contemporary Indonesia.

The labor force participation of Arab women in the United States

Synopsis The primary objective of this study is to extend conventional explanations of female labor force participation to examine the case of Arab women in the United States. With above-average levels of education, Arab women provide a good opportunity to empirically analyze conventional explanations for women's economic activity. Using data from 2008 to 2012 American Community Survey, we test the applicability of these explanations for Arab women by assessing the impact of human capital variables as well as family conditions and immigrant status in predicting labor force participation. Our analysis focuses on two questions: to what extent do existing theories explain differences in labor force participation within Arab women by nativity status, and to what degree do they explain differences from US-born White women? Our study found that Arab women rank the lowest in labor force participation relative to other women in the United States. With regard to the mechanisms responsible for this relationship, some of the findings that emerge from this study are consistent with the conventional explanations while some provide insight into the importance of family conditions and foreign-born status for Arab women's labor force participation.

Muslim women contribution to economic activities: a viewpoint

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to highlight the role of Muslim women in economic activities. Design/methodology/approach – The paper is a historical account on the important role played by Muslim women in business and governance during the Islamic formative years. Findings – While women in the West still struggle with the rights to equal position and pay till today, Islamic teaching provides Muslim women with the rights to earn and spend as they wished as well as selected to lead economic activities based on their personal merit and wisdom. Practical implications – The paper highlights that Islamic Sharia does not discriminate Muslim women economically nor socially as often portrayed in the Western media. Islam outlines the specific rights and obligations of men and women to ensure development of a healthy society. Social implications – Society should appreciate that Islamic Sharia work out favourably for women. They are trusted to lead based on their own merit and wisdom and not for their beauty. Originality/value – This is a keynote speech delivered at the Islamic Perspective of Accounting, Finance, Economics and Management (IPAFEM) 2015 conference: 7th-9th April, Adam Smith Business School, The University of Glasgow – on the economic role played by early Muslim women.

The effects of women's economic activity participation in the local levels on the children's school achievement : Focusing on the gender differences

The effects of women's economic activity participation in the local levels on the children's school achievement : Focusing on the gender differences

Economic Development and Women's Labor Force Participation in India

ABSTRACTIndia has experienced steady economic growth over the last two decades alongside a persistent decline in women's labor force participation (LFPR). This paper explores the relationship between economic development and women's labor supply using state-level data spanning the period 1983–4 to 2011–2. While several studies suggest a U-shaped relationship between development and women's labor force participation, our results suggest that at the state level, there is no systematic U-shaped relationship between level of domestic product and women's LFPR. On examining the relationship between the structure of the economy and women's economic activity, we find that it is not economic growth but rather the composition of growth that is relevant for women. Further, our results suggest that aggregate changes in the proportion of women in the workforce can be mostly attributed to the movement of the workforce across sectors rather than changes in the proportion of women workers within a sector.

Social women entrepreneurship in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Women are taking the lead as change agents and innovators in the society. The participation of women in economic activities occupied a prominent place in the list of strategic priorities and national development plans in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Fostering the development of entrepreneurship sector in this country is one of the political agenda in empowering the women. Considering that the country has a very young population and a growing youth bulge a fact which leads itself well to the rise of women entrepreneurship. This paper highlights the status of social entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia to illuminate why and how its ventures are implemented. The research objective’s end view is to contribute towards the fostering of social entrepreneurship among Saudi women entrepreneurs to boost their confidence in performing the activities that create difference towards progressive development of the socio-economic frames of the country. The study focused on the social entrepreneurship activities prioritized, challenges faced by women social entrepreneurs and strategic measures recommended towards sustainable social entrepreneurship in the Kingdom. The study found out that the basic issue prioritized by social entrepreneurs was training and development; the areas of challenges met were financing, regulatory frameworks and technical support. The strategic measures recommended towards fostering social entrepreneurship in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were focused on access to funding, entrepreneurship culture, tax and regulation, education and training and coordinated support.

Women, marketplaces and exchange partners amongst the Marakwet of northwest Kenya

Based on recent fieldwork, this paper examines the intersecting economic activities of Marakwet women in northwest Kenya with a particular focus on exchange friendships. We highlight the need to expand previous definitions of tilia, based on male exchange of livestock, to include a variety of exchange friendships including those between women. Through investigating women's economic activities in local marketplaces, we demonstrate that marketplaces facilitate the formation of tilia partnerships between women from different areas, and shape women's kinship and friendship interactions within the context of their market activities. We argue that there is a synergy between women's market activities and exchange relationships, but we also emphasise that market activities and tilia exchange relationships are part of the matrix of household economic decision-making navigated by Marakwet women. This has important implications for how we view and support the social and economic contributions of women's activities. Women's tilia relations provide a number of benefits to their trading activities, households and communities, and as such we suggest that rural development interventions would do well to consider and build upon these networks of exchange relations.

Women's economic activity trajectories over the life course: implications for the self-rated health of women aged 64+ in England.

Previous research has highlighted the importance of accumulated life-course labour market status and the balancing of multiple roles for understanding inequalities in health in later life. This may be particularly important for women, who are increasingly required to balance work and family life in liberal welfare contexts, such as in Britain. This study analyses retrospective life history data for 2160 women aged 64+ years (born 1909-1943) from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing, collected in 2006-2007 as part of an ongoing panel study. Optimal matching and cluster analyses are used to produce a taxonomy of women's life-course economic activity trajectories based on their experiences between ages 16 and 64 years. This classification is then used in logistic regression analysis to investigate associations with self-rated health in later life. A set of five trajectories emerge as the dominant patterns of women's economic activity over the life course for those cohorts of English women born prior to 1943: (1) full-time workers; (2) family carers; (3) full-time returners; (4) part-time returners; (5) atypical/inactive. Regression analyses show that women who experience defined periods of full-time work both before and after focusing on family life appear to have the most favourable later life health outcomes. The findings are discussed with reference to the accumulation of social and economic resources over the life course and the balancing of multiple roles in work and family domains. In conclusion, the development of policies that facilitate women, if they wish, to successfully combine paid employment with family life could have a positive impact on their health in later life.

Research on women's economic activity continued Factors -Focusing on the OECD countries-

Research on women's economic activity continued Factors -Focusing on the OECD countries-

WOMEN AND SAMBEN SPACE: TOURISM GLOBALIZATION AND TRADITION IN KASONGAN

The involvement of women in economic activities is a phenomenon that has lasted a long time. An overview of the extensive-role of women confirms that women's involvement context becomes very important to note. One of phenomenon is the “samben” space. The emergence of samben space is a form of adaptation of Kasongan women addressing the growing tourism globalization. In Javanese tradition, women are always become a wife and mother to guard their house. On the other hand, they are also willing to help the family economy by working at home. For this situation they call samben. So the phenomenon of women working from home with an exploration of the whole part of the house is a way for women to adapt to the present but at the same time maintaining cultural traditions to remain a mother and wife.

Barriers and facilitators to health behaviour change and economic activity among slum-dwelling adolescent girls and young women in Nairobi, Kenya: the role of social, health and economic assets

Adolescent girls and young women in urban slum areas in developing countries face a myriad of challenges regarding education, sexual health, livelihoods and gender-based violence. One way of understanding how these challenges interact with each other is through the Asset Building Framework, which posits that girls need a combination of social, health and economic assets in order to make a healthy transition from childhood to adulthood. This study sought to examine barriers and facilitators to health behaviour change and economic activity for girls within the context of this framework. It involved a combination of focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with 128 young women who were in the age range of 18–25 years, living in various slums in Nairobi, Kenya. We found that economic assets reduce young women's dependence on others (especially parents and relationships with men) so that they are able to make positive changes in health behaviour. Social networks, self-esteem and financial literacy all played important roles in positively positioning girls to make the transition to economic activity safely and successfully. We suggest that programmes that seek to improve girls’ and young women's health behaviour or economic activity include elements of asset building within all three categories of assets.

Beyond the census. Reconstructing Dutch women's labour market participation in agriculture in the Netherlands, ca. 1830–1910

Many historians have pointed out for various countries that nineteenth-century national censuses do not accurately reflect women's economic activity. This was no different for the Dutch national censuses. In this article, we argue that under-recording was especially severe in agriculture, and that this problem increased towards the end of the century. The rise in under-recording was partly due to an increased irregularity of women's work on farms, but it also reflected changing living standards and ideologies, in which work was increasingly defined as undesirable for women. In relative terms, agriculture did become less important to men and women alike because of mechanization and industrialization. Nevertheless, agriculture continued to employ many women, especially married women and daughters working on their husbands' and fathers' farms. By offering additional source material and methods for estimating women's labour force participation in agriculture on a regional level, such as relating their occupational status to their husbands', and estimating the number of days worked, we aim to offer an enhanced methodology for gauging the work of women in agriculture, which may be applied to future research.

Bringing Commodity Chain Analysis Back to Its World-Systems Roots: Rediscovering Women’s Work and Households

Globally between 1980 and 2000, women's economic activity rate expanded, narrowing the gender gap in labor force participation. Thus, females now account for one-third or more of the "officially-counted" personnel of export industries (UNICEF 2007), and export agriculture is now feminized (Deere 2005). Today women account for one-third of the manufacturing labor force in developing countries, and females hold more than one-half of the industrial jobs in Asia (Barrientos, Kabeer and Hossain 2004). In much of the global South, females account for a majority of the waged labor force in export agriculture, and they are more heavily concentrated than men in service jobs that provision the supply chains of global production. As a reflection of fewer opportunities for males, women are now less likely to withdraw from the labor force during their childbearing years. In addition, females account for a majority of the income earners in the informal sectors of a majority of global South countries, generate a significant proportion of global commodities through subcontracted work they complete in their households, and provide most of the unpaid family labor needed to support household-based farms and businesses that are dominated by males (United Nations 2003).

Assessment of the gender gap in Sudan

This paper examines the gender gap in education and investigates the related implications on the labour market and returns to education in Sudan. Our results confirm two stylized facts: first, the incidence of significant gender gap in education in Sudan and second, the incidence of gender inequalities and gap in skill level, share of women in economic activities, labour force participation rate, employment and returns to education can be interpreted in relation to the incidence of gender gap in education. We fill the gap in the Sudanese literature by addressing the gender gap in education and related implications in labour market and returns to education, since these issues are not adequately discussed in the Sudanese literature. A novel element in our analysis is that we use new primary survey data at the micro level to show the gap and differences in returns to education and correlation between wage and education, experience and its square defined by gender in Sudan. Our findings at the micro level imply that the slight gender gap or difference in the rate of return to education in favour of women is only 0.2 which is not very noticeable. These findings indicate the importance of enhancing educational attainment for women to facilitate improvement of return to education for women. We find that in general women are likely to be more unemployed than men. The major policy implications and recommendations from our analysis are that Sudan needs to reduce the gender gap in education and related implication in the labour market. By investing large amounts of resources in increasing women's educational attainment, improving economic participation, increasing employment opportunities and improving equal and fair returns to education for Sudanese women to better integrate Sudanese women into the economy to reap the benefits of investment in empowerment of women.

Rural Women's Involvement in Entrepreneurship in Sukur World Heritage Site, Adamawa State, Nigeria

Sukur, a World Heritage Site and the first in Nigeria, is a hilltop settlement where women engage in terrace subsistence farming to support their families. The new status of Sukur as World Heritage Site is attracting local and foreign visitors who are interested in local cuisines and buying iof souvenirs to take back home. Skill acquisition and entrepreneurship development centre was established in Shuwa located in Madagali Local Government Council in Bornu State of Nigeria, by funds from UNDP to empower women especially and youths. This is with a view to earning income from heightened numbers of visitors. This paper investigated the involvement of women and their attitude towards entrepreneurial activities. In Nigeria, men assume the role of bread winners, while women were usually restricted to care for the home front. Consequently, the attitude of men (husbands) in involving their women in economic activities was determined. The relationship between the level of women involvement in Entrepreneurship and their socio-economic characteristic and that of their husbands were also established. One hundred rural women and a proportional one hundred husbands from ten (10) clans in Maidagali Local Government Council were selected employing random sampling method. A pre-tested structured questionnaire and focus group discussion were used to collect relevant information from respondents. The variables were measured using 5-likert scale. The study revealed that the new status of Sukur contributed significantly to the positive disposition of women towards entrepreneurial activities, so also was their husbands’ attitude towards the involvement of these women in entrepreneurial activities. The study concluded that women in Sukur World Heritage Sites, if properly motivated and entrepreneurially trained can earn foreign exchange from local and foreign visitors by selling local cuisines, souvenirs, and crafts, and also solve unemployment challenges.