Wing Design Research Articles

A NEW BIO-INSPIRED WING DESIGN WITH 3D ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING SCANNING AND PRINTING METHOD: MJF TECHNOLOGY

In this study, unlike many wing profiles currently available, a new wing design has been carried out with bio-inspiration, which has attracted the attention of many scientists. There are many traditional methods in 3d additive manufacturing technologies. There are several types of 3D printing method. The four most preferred 3d printing methods are as follows. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stereolithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Multi Jet Fusion (MJF). MJF technology, one-to-one prototype production of wings with very small dimensions and aerodynamic structure has been achieved. In contrast to FDM and other additive printing technologies, it is possible to eliminate highly sensitive and high surface quality products.

Multidisciplinary optimization of high aspect ratio composite wings with geometrical nonlinearity and aeroelastic tailoring

This study presents a systematic numerical approach for the design and optimization of high aspect ratio composite wings subjected to aerodynamic loads. The primary objective is to develop a multi-objective, multi-disciplinary optimization framework that considers aerostructural constraints, such as subsonic aeroelasticity and geometrical nonlinearity. The incorporation of anisotropic properties of composite materials is emphasized to construct lightweight aerospace structures. Aeroelastic tailoring, a technique leveraging these properties, is employed in the optimization process. The proposed methodology integrates three analysis tools, Finite Element software for structural behavior simulation, an in-house Reduced Order Model (ROM) framework for nonlinear aeroelastic analyses with tailoring capabilities, and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) as a population-based stochastic optimization method. This integration enables the development of a powerful numerical approach, implemented in the Nonlinear Aeroelastic Simulation Software (NAS2) package, for designing composite wings with optimized aeroelastic and structural performance. The proposed methodology has broad applicability in aerospace engineering, encompassing aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles, offering significant potential to enhance their design and overall performance.

Non-Linear Analysis in Post-Buckling Regime of a Tilt Rotor Composite Wing Structure Using Detailed Model and Robust Loading Approach

The design and development of a wing for a completely brand-new aircraft represents, in aeronautics, one of the highest challenges from an engineering point of view. The present work describes a novel methodology devoted to execute numeric simulation in a non-linear post-buckling regime to verify the composite wing compliance under the design load conditions. The procedure was developed as part of a wing design and research activity and was motivated by the need to have more realistic results, without standard conservatisms like the no-buckling up to ultimate load, to be of use for achieving further weight savings. To carry this out, it was obviously necessary to ensure that the structural integrity was also guaranteed in the post-buckling regime, above the limit load, and therefore in a highly non-linear regime. The present work illustrates a numerical approach based on non-linear finite element analysis which uses the inertia relief option in order to have a more realistic representation of the structural response of the wing in its real context. All that represents a novelty since, at present, the commercial FE codes allow us to use the inertia relief option exclusively for linear analysis. Obviously, the approach can be applied to any other structural component with similar needs. The obtained results show that the differences between linear and non-linear regime are not negligible and, above all, that it is possible to design a wing (or other structural components) considering, at the same time, the large deformation due to the post-buckling regime, the material non-linearities due to the failures and any other non-linearities in order to achieve the challenging weight requirement of the new aircraft generation.

Experimental Study to Increase the Autonomy of a UAV by Incorporating Solar Cells

Solar energy is recognized as an alternative to combustion engines to reduce the environmental impact and increase the endurance of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). This work aims to present a project for a solar UAV to contribute to the mission of the Air Force Academy Research Center and test the energy system on the ground. To achieve this study’s objectives, a literature review on photovoltaic cells (PVCs), batteries, and maximum power point tracking algorithms was conducted. The most appropriate airframe and wing designs for this particular type of flight are then investigated. Following that, the project requirements and mission profile were defined, and the copper indium gallium selenide eFilm cells, a solar power management system (SPMS), avionics, and payload required for the mission were chosen based on them. A methodology for ground testing of solar systems was created and used, achieving an endurance of 7 h and 34 min on an April day. The SPMS achieved an efficiency of around 96%, while PVCs ranged from 11.3 to 14.1%.

Coupled Dynamics of Droplet Impact on a Flexible, Hydrophilic Cantilever Beam.

We experimentally study the droplet impact on a flexible, hydrophilic cantilever beam. Droplets of water, water-glycerol (1:1 v/v), and glycerol were considered on a copper beam. Side visualization of the droplet impact on the cantilever was carried out by using a high-speed camera. We systematically vary cantilever stiffness to obtain a characteristic time scale of the beam dynamics, that is, shorter on the same order and longer than the characteristic time scale of droplet dynamics. Water droplet spreading reduces with an increase in the beam's flexibility, due to the "springboard effect". Results reveal that a threshold cantilever length exists beyond which the droplet vibration mode "locks-in" to the cantilever vibration mode. During lock-in, the bending energy of the beam increases with an increasing length or decreasing stiffness. The time-varying cantilever deflection exhibits an oscillatory, exponentially decaying response. However, in the case where both time scales are almost the same, we found a two-stage damping in the measurements: a fast, initial damping followed by a slower, damped response. We explain this damped response by the interplay of droplet and cantilever early dynamics. As expected, increasing the droplet viscosity dampens the magnitude of droplet spreading and displacement of the cantilever's tip due to a larger dissipation of kinetic energy in the bulk of the droplet. The decay is exponential in all cases, and the time taken to reduce the spreading and displacement is shorter with a larger viscosity. The damping coefficient is found to inversely scale with the cantilever length or mass. We corroborated the measurements with available analytical models, confirming the hypotheses used to explain the results. Overall, the present study provides fundamental insights into controlling the coupled dynamics of droplet and flexible substrates, with potential applications such as the design of efficient agricultural sprays and wings of microaerial vehicles.

An adaptive machine learning-based optimization method in the aerodynamic analysis of a finite wing under various cruise conditions

Conventional wing aerodynamic optimization processes can be time-consuming and imprecise due to the complexity of versatile flight missions. Plenty of existing literature has considered two-dimensional infinite airfoil optimization, while three-dimensional finite wing optimizations are subject to limited study because of high computational costs. Here we create an adaptive optimization methodology built upon digitized wing shape deformation and deep learning algorithms, which enable the rapid formulation of finite wing designs for specific aerodynamic performance demands under different cruise conditions. This methodology unfolds in three stages: radial basis function interpolated wing generation, collection of inputs from computational fluid dynamics simulations, and deep neural network that constructs the surrogate model for the optimal wing configuration. It has been demonstrated that the proposed methodology can significantly reduce the computational cost of numerical simulations. It also has the potential to optimize various aerial vehicles undergoing different mission environments, loading conditions, and safety requirements.

Design of a new sweptback wing for a future supersonic aircraftResearch on lift drag characteristics and aerodynamic analysis

In recent years, with the gradual development of the aviation industry, how to make supersonic aircraft truly used in military air defense has become a global problem. In this paper, the wing design of supersonic aircraft is studied, a swept back symmetrical wing suitable for supersonic reconnaissance aircraft is designed with reasonable aspect ratio, span length, sweep angle, thrust weight ratio and wing load. On the basis of the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft analyzed, the inboard electron, outboard electron, flasheron, leading edge flap and all moving tip are designed to ensure the controllability in the flight line and to maintain the balance and stability of the aircraft. The qualitative analysis of the flight performance of the wing is also performed. This paper provides a possibility for the design of supersonic aircraft in the future.

Aerodynamic Analysis of a Logistics UAV with Foldable Bi-wing Configuration

Herein, a twin-boom, inverted V-tailed unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) featuring a foldable bi-wing configuration is proposed for logistics and transportation applications. We employed the Navier–Stokes solver to numerically simulate steady, incompressible flow conditions. By examining the effects of key design parameters on aerodynamic characteristics and bypass flow fields in a two-dimensional state, we were able to suggest a more optimized foldable wing design. Building on the two-dimensional analysis, we performed aerodynamic assessments of the three-dimensional aircraft geometry. Our results indicated that appropriate wing and gap parameters can significantly enhance lift characteristics, maintaining high lift even during large-angle flights. Specifically, when compared to a mono-wing, the lift coefficient of the bi-wing increased by 27.1% at a 14° angle of attack, demonstrating the effectiveness of our wing-and-gap design. Optimal aerodynamic performance was achieved when the gap distance equalled the chord length in both flow and vertical directions. Further, the right combination of airfoil configuration, wing axes angle, and wingspan can improve flow field aerodynamic characteristics, while also enhancing the wing’s stall capacity. The lift coefficient reached its maximum value at an angle of attack of 15°, which has the potential to reduce takeoff and landing distances, thereby enhancing the UAV’s overall safety.

Morphing concepts in the field of rotorcraft

Drawing inspiration from avian creatures, aeronautical engineers strive to create an ideal wing design that can seamlessly perform in various flight conditions. Avian creatures, as well as bats and other flying organisms, exhibit a striking aptitude to adjust the lift produced by their wings, displaying the capacity to repeatedly tailor their wing configurations to match specific environmental conditions. An example of this is when their wings are tightly tucked during dives for hunting, or fully extended during gliding to conserve energy. Moreover, these organisms can manipulate the curvature and twist of their wings to maintain precise control over their aerial maneuvers. In contrast, engineers in the aircraft industry continue to rely on the standard, robust and structured “one-point design” approach, which remains the most practical and feasible method to apply. Nonetheless, advancements in technology have emerged to address long-standing challenges in wing manufacturing that were previously deemed insurmountable. This convergence of different technologies has given significant momentum and recognition to the field of “morphing discipline”. When considering an aircraft, shape changes primarily relate to the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft or the blade of a rotorcraft. The concept of achieving a "smooth" shape change stems from the crucial need for drag reduction and improved flow quality, resulting in improved overall performance. The state-of-the-art morphing concepts applied to rotorcrafts comprise a wide range of investigations aimed at improving performance. Looking ahead, the primary challenge for morphing technology will be to persuade the industry of its tangible benefits. This encompasses enhanced aerodynamic efficiency, minimized installation footprint when contrasted with conventional control surface mechanisms, reduced overall weight, and an equivalent standard of safety. This research provides an overview of the current development of different control devices and explores the impact of previous and continuous research endeavors in this field. Numerous ideas for managing airflow have been explored with the aim of enhancing the performance abilities of rotary-wing aircraft. These include active morphing in rotorcraft such as leading edge slats, trailing edge flaps, and passive morphing in rotorcraft such as variable rpm rotorcraft. The aim of these blade modifications is to achieve various desired effects such as increasing the maximum lift coefficient, reducing drag, and minimizing vibratory loads. Convincing the industry of these advantages will play a crucial role in shaping the future of morphing technology.

Selection of sustainable material for the construction of UAV aerodynamic wing using MCDM technique

Flying robots and drones are gaining popularity in various sectors worldwide. In such a scenario, the design and development of these aerial vehicles are very crucial. One of the most challenging parts is the selection of materials for different parts of flying robots. Our main focus is on wings various engineering materials are used for the development of the wing structure of the flying robot. The challenging part in the design and development of a flying robot is its material selection which plays a crucial role. The major requirement of materials selected should be resistance to deformation, high tensile strength, low thermal gradient, vibration resistance, and high strength-to-weight ratio. In this paper, we have taken the five most widely used materials for the development of drones ie Carbon fiber reinforced plastics, Kevlar, Balsa wood, Polystyrene, and aluminum alloy, and have made comparisons among them using the MCDM technique to select the best one out of the five for development of wing structure of flying robots. We have also carried out structural and vibration analysis to check the resistance for deformation and vibration for the wing of a flying robot in the case of different categories of materials used for its wing structure. This will help new researchers select the most efficient material by comparing the widely used materials and taking into account the important material properties based on a survey conducted by key experts in the domain of material engineering. This paper gives a comparative study using the MCDM technique for the selection of material for the wing design of flying robots.

Design of the ONERA M6 wing by shape optimization under uncertainty

Aerodinamik şekil optimizasyon süreçleri, tekli veya çoklu tasarım hedeflerini sağlayan kompleks problemler için sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Geleneksel ve belirsizliğin dahil edilmediği problemlere nazaran belirsizliklerin dahil edildiği ve yüksek değişken sayısına sahip sağlam optimizasyon yöntemlerinin hesaplama yükü oldukça yüksektir. Bu problemin önüne geçmek için, bu çalışmada, temel bileşenler analizi, tümevarımsal tasarım araştırma yöntemi ile entegre edilerek ONERA M6 kanadının sağlam şekil optimizasyonu gerçekleştirilmiştir. Temel bileşenler analizi yöntemi, kanat geometrisinin tasarım değişkeni sayısını azaltmak için tercih edilmiştir. Hesaplamalı akışkanlar dinamiği analizi kullanımı sonucunda ortaya çıkan yüksek çözüm süreleri ise, temel bileşenler analizi yönteminin bir vekil model tekniği olan radyal bazlı fonksiyon ile birlikte kullanılmasıyla oluşturulan bir veri tahmin modeli ile azaltılmıştır. Transonik akış rejimi için Mach sayısındaki belirsizlikler, önerilen tümevarımsal tasarım araştırma yöntemi tabanlı yönteme dahil edilerek sağlam optimizasyon gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sağlam tasarımların performans tahminlerinin hesaplamalı akışkanlar dinamiği analiz sonuçlarına oldukça yakın elde edilmesi, önerilen yöntemin etkinliğini göstermiştir.

Analysis and improvements of a front wing for formula SAE car

Although aerodynamic packages have been developed for many years, teams still face the problem of lack of downforce and how to control the turbulence. One possible reason is that the size of a formula SAE(Society of Automotive Engineers) car is strictly limited. It is unrealistic to blindly copy Formula 1's aerodynamic package without improving. Aided by CFD (computational fluid dynamics), this article focuses on the front wings aerodynamic characteristics in order to modify the downforce and the flow field around it. The front wing is divided into two parts, one is to direct the airflow bypass the tires, and the other is to diminish the airflow lifted by the front wing. Moreover, a special flap is designed to control the airflow and achieve good results. This article also shows the airflow around the whole car with aerodynamic packages to make the results more vivid. This article may offer a reference for the front wing design of race cars.

Multi-objective design and optimization of wings

Nowadays, with the fast development of technology, aircrafts have been successful advanced. As we all know, wings are one of the most significant parts of the aircrafts, therefore, multi-objective design and optimization of wings has become a critical issue among many researchers. This paper mainly introduces several approaches to improve the wing in different conditions, including optimization design of civil airplanes, design and optimization of aircraft wing structure at low Reynolds numbers, Wing Design and Aerodynamic Characteristics of Biomimetic Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicles and so on, the purpose of this article is to give a brief introduction to these relatively new research methods and make the public understand more about this field. The primary approaches of this article are literature analysis and review. This paper finds that algorithm and artificial intelligence are fundamental to improving wings, and all the design needs to reduce the amount of energy as much as possible, which is also the most important requirement.

Application of magnus effect on wings

As an important part of the aircraft, the wing provides enough lift for the aircraft, but also creates additional drag. An effective wing design guarantees sufficient lift while minimizing the impact of drag on the aircraft. Aerodynamic analysis is an interdisciplinary research in the course of wing design. In this paper, the design of Magnus type is discussed by means of computational fluid dynamics. First, the airfoil with Magnus rollers was designed. Then, the key parameters such as rotational speed and Angle of attack are studied. Through the analysis of the line chart and calculation domain image of the calculation results, the results show that the installation of Magnus roller on the wing can effectively increase the lift and reduce the drag. With the increase of the rotational speed of Magnus Roller, the lift generated is larger. In the process of increasing the rotational speed, the reflux area behind the airfoil keeps decreasing until it disappears. It is proved that the Magnus airfoil can effectively avoid the phenomenon of airflow separation and avoid the stall of the aircraft. The conclusion can provide theoretical basis for the optimization design of the new generation aircraft airfoil.

Wind tunnel experimental study of aerodynamic characteristics of co-flow jet wing with built-in air source

To further investigate the aerodynamic characteristics and control mechanisms of co-flow jet wings, this study presents the design of a co-flow jet wing (CFJ-CLARKY18) with an embedded micro centrifugal compressor. The CFJ-CLARKY18 wing, based on the CLARKY18 airfoil, incorporates a miniature centrifugal compressor positioned horizontally within the wing's cavity, with its rotor axis perpendicular to the wing chord line, thus alleviating geometric constraints and the compressor's exhaust swirl. The integration of the co-flow jet device with the wing is achieved through a split-flow channel design to ensure uniform co-flow jet injection, followed by verification of jet uniformity and calibration of six jet momentum coefficients. Subsequently, static and dynamic control experiments of the co-flow jet wing are conducted in an open-return wind tunnel, utilizing force measurement systems and high-speed particle image velocimetry tools to investigate its aerodynamic characteristics and control mechanisms. Static stall tests indicate that, compared to the original wing, the CFJ-CLARKY18 wing exhibits a significant increase in lift and a noticeable delay in stall angle. At low angles of attack, an increase in co-flow jet momentum leads to a reduction in drag coefficient, with the possibility of achieving negative drag (thrust) even at high co-flow jet momentum coefficients. The results of dynamic stall tests with force measurements indicate that, while keeping the reduced frequency constant, an increase in co-flow jet momentum coefficient results in higher maximum lift and average lift coefficients, accompanied by a significant reduction in average drag coefficient and the hysteresis loop area of the lift coefficient. Despite the increased reduced frequency exacerbating the wing's stall effect, the stall effect weakens significantly once the co-flow jet momentum coefficient is increased.

Design, kinematic and fluid-structure interaction analysis of a morphing wing

The application of morphing wing enables vehicles to show better aerodynamic performance in various flight conditions. This article proposes a modular bilateral triangular pyramid (BTP) unit-based morphing wing skeleton (MWS) mechanism that may achieve continuous variable span-wise bend, span-wise twist, and sweep. A lockable morphing (LM) unit with the BTP unit is designed. Based on the Denavit–Hartenberg coordinate method and motion influence coefficient method, the kinematics of MWS mechanism is conducted. The theoretical models of the kinematic characteristics of the MWS mechanism during the three morphing patterns are obtained. The kinematic simulation models of three morphing configurations of the MWS mechanism are performed. The driving speed ratio of the linear actuator of span-wise bend and twist is analyzed during the twisting phase, and the analysis shows that there be a speed ratio minimizes the coupling bend angle. By comparing the results between the theoretical and simulation models, the accuracies of kinematic theoretical models under different morphing configurations are verified. At last, this article conducted a two-way fluid-structure interaction (FSI) analysis of morphing wing to obtain the influence of aerodynamic load on the flexible skin and skeleton mechanism, as well as the influence of structural deformation on the aerodynamic characteristics. Results show that the initial and swept states have the greatest impact on the out of plane bearing capacity of the flexible skin. In addition, the out-of-plane bulging deformation located at the trailing edge of the flexible skin is beneficial for improving aerodynamic performance, while the protrusion located at the leading edge increases air resistance. These findings provide important theoretical basis for the application of the MWS mechanism.

Aircraft Wing Design for Extended Hybrid Laminar Flow Control

Laminar flow offers significant potential for increasing the energy-efficiency of future transport aircraft. The German Cluster of Excellence SE2A is developing a new approach for hybrid laminar flow control. The concept aims to maintain laminar flow up to 80% of the chord length by integrating suction panels at the rear part of the wing, which consist of a thin suction skin and a supporting core structure. This study examines effects of various suction panel configurations on wing mass and load transfer for an all-electric short-range aircraft. Suction panel material, as well as thickness and relative density of the suction panel core are modified in meaningful boundaries. Suction panels made from Ti6Al4V offer the most robust design resulting in a significant increase in wing mass. For the studied configurations, they represent up to 33.8% of the mass of the wingbox. In contrast, panels made from Nylon11CF or PU1000 do not significantly increase the wing mass. However, the use of these materials raises questions about their robustness under operational conditions. The results demonstrate that the choice of material strongly influences the load path within the wing structure. Ti6Al4V suction panels provide sufficient mechanical properties to significantly contribute to load transfer and buckling stiffness. Locally, the share of load transfer attributed to the suction panel exceeds 50%. In contrast, compliant materials such as Nylon11CF or PU1000 are inherently decoupled from load transfer. Unlike the thickness of the suction skin, the relative density of the core structure strongly affects the wrinkling stiffness. However, wrinkling failure did not appear critical for the examined suction panel configurations. In the present study, the mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V cannot fully be exploited. Therefore, compliant suction panels made from Nylon11CF are preferred in order to achieve a lightweight solution, provided that they meet operational requirements.

Static analysis of shear-deformable aircraft wings using a multilayered functionally graded material model

This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the static analysis of a shear-deformable aircraft wing made of functionally graded materials (FGMs). A finite element-based multilayered FGM model is employed for this purpose. In order to ensure the safe structural design of the aircraft wing, it is crucial to analyze the transverse displacement of the wing under various loading conditions. The presented model employs a power-law distribution based on the rule of mixture to derive the effective material properties of the FGM wing. The analysis focuses on three standard FGM aircraft wing profiles, namely NACA 0009, NACA 2424, and NACA 4415, which are representative of commonly used geometries in aircraft design. Additionally, the study explores the effects of volume fraction index, loading conditions, boundary conditions, and aspect ratio on the static analysis of the shear-deformable FGM aircraft wing. These parameters play a significant role in shaping the static behavior of the wings and offer valuable insights into the design of FGM aircraft wings.

3D-Printed Bio-Inspired Mechanisms for Bird-like Morphing Drones

Birds have unique flight characteristics unrivaled by even the most advanced drones due in part to their lightweight morphable wings and tail. Advancements in 3D-printing, servomotors, and composite materials are enabling more innovative airplane designs inspired by avian flight that could lead to optimized flight characteristics compared to traditional designs. Morphing technology aims to improve the aerodynamic and power efficiencies of aircraft by eliminating traditional control surfaces and implementing wings with significant shape-changing ability. This work proposes designs of 3D-printed, bio-inspired, non-flapping, morphing wing and tail mechanisms for unmanned aerial vehicles. The proposed wing design features a corrugated flexible 3D-printed structure to facilitate sweep morphing with expansion and contraction of the attached artificial feathers. The proposed tail feather expansion mechanism features a 3D-printed flexible structure with circumferential corrugation. The various available 3D-printing materials and the capability to print geometrically complex components have enabled the realization of the proposed morphing deformations without demanding relatively large actuation forces. Proof-of-concept models were manufactured and tested to demonstrate the effectiveness of the selected materials and actuators in achieving the desired morphing deformations that resemble those of seagulls.

Design Optimization of a Cavitating 2D Profile in Proximity of the Free Surface

The appearance of AC72 foiling catamarans in the scenario of sailing yacht competitions in 2013 raised attention to this ship design concept, although not brand new in the yacht design history. The drastic drag reduction connected with the elevation of the ship hull outside the water is obtained by the use of a foil, or a system of foils, acting as the wings of a plane, providing a lift force balancing the weight of the ship. Since this lift is proportional (non-linearly) to the ship hull speed, the take-off speed of the hull cannot be low. As a result, since we are travelling in water at high speeds, the occurrence of the phenomenon of cavitation cannot be completely avoided, and the performance of the ship undergoes deterioration. Shaping of the foil profile must consider this peculiar situation, so the design tools commonly adopted for the aero-hydrodynamic hull design optimization are no longer adequate. In this paper, we are considering the optimization of the 2D profile of a foil in three different physical conditions: single fluid, two fluids and two fluids with cavitation. The first is typical of aeronautic wing design, the second of the appendages of a displacement ship, and the third of a foiling ship. Results give evidence of the different requirements for the three different conditions.