Wine Experts Research Articles

Getting More Out of Wine: wine experts, wine apps and sensory science

How do consumers decide which wines to buy from the bewildering range on offer to them? Who should they turn to for advice? The answers to these questions are of interest not just to consumers but also to producers and wine merchants who hope to influence consumers’ choices and develop their interests in wine. At one time, consumers looked to the points awarded by authoritative wine critics but increasingly, they use wine apps to extend their wine choices. Reliance on digital technology is meant to replace reliance on expert wine tasters whose judgments can be questioned or whose verdicts on what count as good quality wines may not line-up with the tastes and preferences of ordinary wine consumers. Wine apps’ recommendations based on the wisdom of the crowd favour what most people like but offer little insight into why they like it. It is here that sensory science can play a role in identifying the drivers of liking; however liking should be distinguished from quality. Wine experts aim to identify wine quality; wine apps mostly aim at average liking. To get more out of wine consumers need a way to go beyond liking.

Book Reviews

A. Alonso Ugaglia of Bordeaux Sciences Agro UMR INRA 1065 SAVE reviews “World Scientific Reference on Handbook of the Economics of Wine,” by Edited by Orley Ashenfelter, Olivier Gergaud, Karl Storchmann, and William Ziemba. The Econlit abstract of this book begins: “Provides an introduction to the main research strands in wine economics. Discusses wine and the natural environment, hedonic analyses of wine prices, wine and finance, wine tastings and competitions, wine and expert opinion, reputation, wine and regulation, wine auctions, supply and its implications, and organization.”

Wine expertise: perceptual learning in the chemical senses

Researchers have long been interested in the kinds of perceptual learning that take place in those who acquire wine expertise. However, progress in this field has been hampered by differing accounts of what, exactly, counts as expertise, not to mention the exact nature of any learning taking place. That said, the majority of studies published to date have tended to document more pronounced changes in conceptual knowledge structures than in terms of enhanced smell or taste sensitivity per se. Converging neuroimaging research from studies where experts and non-experts taste/evaluate wine in the brain scanner has also highlighted changes in neural activation in those brain areas consistent with enhanced conceptual/synthetic analysis in wine experts. Given the impressive effects that have been demonstrated elsewhere in the literature on perceptual learning, several reasons as to why similar effects have typically not been widely observed in the case of wine expertise are briefly discussed: Relevant factors here likely include everything from the distinctly suboptimal environment for sensory analysis in the brain scanner, through to the mismatch between the kinds of tasks/training typically involved in the acquisition of wine expertise, and the type of perceptual threshold testing normally used to assess the consequences of perceptual learning.

An exploratory analysis of cross-country biases in expert wine reviews

ABSTRACTThis paper examines whether online reviews by wine experts use different language to describe wines from different countries, and whether this reveals a certain bias. This is important because the language used in wine reviews can make a wine seem more or less appealing, and therefore may have a significant impact on consumers’ perceptions and purchase intentions. An automated content analysis was conducted of 28,858 reviews for top-rated wines that were published on the Wine Enthusiast magazine website. While the initial objective was to focus on the Old World versus New World dichotomy, the findings are more nuanced. Most of the differences that were found between reviews for wines from particular countries can be explained based on for example climate and whether or not the wine is purchased for immediate consumption. However, it was also found that reviews for wines from France, Italy and the United States use much more figurative language, and refer more often to the vineyard and the winemaking process, while this is much less the case for wines from Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina and Chile. This could indicate that reviewers have a bias based on their level of knowledge of, and/or interest in, particular countries.

Community and Expert Wine Ratings and Prices

This paper assesses the relative impact community consumer ratings and expert ratings have on Australian wine prices. Results suggest community ratings may better explain price variations than expert scores; however, the performance difference is not definitive. Expert scores are found to have some additional unique power beyond community ratings in explaining prices. These results hold for both models based on current quality and reputation ratings and a number of robustness checks. The results suggest that producers may need to monitor both expert and community assessments of wines based on numerous vintages to accurately assess wine prices.

Rejection of labrusca-type aromas in wine differs by wine expertise and geographic region

Methyl anthranilate (MA) and 2-aminoacetophenone (2AAP) are commonly associated with the flavor of wines made from V. labruscana grapes. It is widely assumed that wine experts and consumers find these flavors to be objectionable, at least in wines vinified from V. vinifera grapes. Here, a two-alternative forced-choice task was used to compare preference for unoaked Chardonnay against the same Chardonnay spiked with MA or 2AAP in ascending concentration series. Participants were either wine experts from California, or non-expert wine consumers from California or Pennsylvania. Wines were evaluated in the mouth and participants were instructed to indicate which sample within a pair they preferred. Rejection threshold estimates were determined by regressing 2AFC responses against concentration. Consistent with the expectation that experts view V. labrusca associated odors as a fault, wines with high concentrations of methyl anthranilate were largely rejected by wine experts in California. However, non-expert consumers in California were more tolerant than the wine experts in California, and non-expert consumers in Pennsylvania showed little to no influence of added methyl anthranilate on their preferences. Contrary to expectations however, 2-aminoacetophenone failed to elicit rejection in California wine experts or consumers within the range tested. Our results suggest that while V. vinifera wines may occasionally contain amounts of methyl anthranilate and 2-aminoacetophenone that are detectable in chemical analysis, the presence of these odorants at levels naturally found in V. vinifera wines is insufficient to elicit rejection from wine experts or consumers, regardless of their regional wine culture.

The “right” wine taster

PurposeThe theory of emergent nature argues that the “right” people have a unique ability to imagine and envision how products might be developed so that they can be successful in the marketplace. The purpose of this paper is to apply this theory to the wine market to evaluate the ability of wine tasters with the “right” profile (i.e. high in emergent nature) to identify benefits applicable to the development of a new wine.Design/methodology/approachTwo sequential studies were performed to collect data: a qualitative study of a sample of 44 professional wine tasters to identify the “right” profile and a quantitative study, with a sample of 1,126 consumers, to assess the value of the benefits proposed by the wine tasters in terms of purchase intention. The validation of the measurement model was carried out using the variance-based partial least squares (PLS) technique.FindingsTwo types of wine tasters were identified, normal and “right”. The “right” wine tasters were more and better able to develop arguments for the innovation and market orientation of the wine.Practical implicationsIn the context of the wine market, identifying expert wine tasters with the “right” profile is a strategic option to improve innovation and market orientation in the development of commercially viable wines.Originality/valueThis pioneering research validates, in the wine market, a proven methodology used in other markets, which makes it possible to identify expert wine tasters high in emergent nature. These “right” expert tasters identify benefits that can have a decisive effect on purchase intention.

TIMING OF INOCULATION WITH SELECTED WINE BACTERIA ON THE KINETICS OF MALOLACTIC FERMENTATION AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF VRANEC WINE FROM TIKVESH WINE REGION

The aim of this investigation is to determine the influence of timing of inoculation of four different lactic bacterias by co-inoculation during the fermentation and post-fermentation of Vranec variety, to obtain more balanced wines with refined aromas. VP 41, ML Prime, O-Mega and PN4 are the types of commercial available lactic bacterias produced by Lallemand producer, used in malolactic fermentation (MLF) of wine Vranec. The kinetic of transformation of malic into lactic acid was measured. Also, chemical composition of wine (alcohol strength, specific gravity, total extract, total acids, volatile acids, pH, free and total SO2) was performed. The sensory descriptive analysis was performed. Seven wine experts were involved for the descriptive evaluation of the investigated wines.

Basic In-Mouth Attribute Evaluation: A Comparison of Two Panels.

Astringency is often difficult to evaluate accurately in wine because of its complexity. This accuracy can improve through training sessions, but it can be time-consuming and expensive. A way to reduce these costs can be the use of wine experts, who are known to be reliable evaluators. Therefore, the aim of this work was to compare the sensory results and the panel performance obtained using trained panelists versus wine experts (winemakers). Judges evaluated twelve red wines for in-mouth basic perception (sweet, sour, bitter, astringent, and burning sensation) following the same tasting protocol and with the samples being presented in two different tasting modalities. Panels’ performance and relationship between the chemical composition and the sensory perception were investigated. Both panels showed similar consistency and repeatability, and they were able to accurately measure the astringency of the wines. However, the significant correlations between sensory scores and chemical composition varied with the panel and the tasting modality. From our results, we could see that winemakers tended to discriminate better between the samples when the differences were very small.

Does innovation propensity influence wineries’ distribution channel decisions?

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to analyze the relationships between distribution strategies and the level of innovation propensity in the winemaking industry. It intends to identify the existence of patterns around the way wineries innovate and the way distribution channels are used. These determinants can support or constrain wineries’ behaviors in their strategic choices related to distribution channels.Design/methodology/approachThe sample comprised 191 Italian small- to medium-sized enterprises in the wine industry. First, a two-step cluster analysis was used to identify patterns in the level of innovation propensity and differences in distribution channel strategies. Second, the research question was tested using multinomial logit regression.FindingsFive clusters of innovation propensity were identified, varying from “no propensity to innovate” to “propensity for radical innovation”, and three clusters of distribution channel strategies were found. A significant negative relationship between innovation propensity and distribution channel strategies was revealed. This means that the greater the propensity to innovate, the smaller the need for a wholesale distribution option.Research limitations/implicationsAs with most research, there are limitations to this study. First, the sample is from only one country. A second limitation is the sample size (191 Italian firms). A sample including large firms can be used to further validate the findings. Linked to the sample, another possible limitation is that all respondents were small- and medium-sized enterprises from a single industry.Practical implicationsThis study contributes to the current innovation research by showing the existence of a negative relationship between innovation propensity and the choice of distribution channel in the wine industry. This knowledge is precious to entrepreneurs and managers in the wine sector, allowing them to better consider not only the type of strategies related to distribution channels but also the importance of building the firm’s propensity to innovate into the strategic decision-making process. Furthermore, the paper provides an opportunity for practitioners to reflect upon the fact that changing the distribution channel is more than just changing the outlet for their product; it might also require a revision in their innovation propensity to better facilitate the process.Social implicationsThere are also social implications, in particular providing an advantage for consumers. The major advantage is based on the fact that consumers are now aware that the level of innovation propensity in a wine industry is directly linked to the type of distribution channel adopted. Therefore, wines with low-innovation propensity are most likely found to adopt wholesale distribution strategy, while the more innovative wineries adopt the wine expert and direct distribution channels.Originality/valueFor the first time, a cluster analysis approach was used to review different typologies of Italian wineries based on their propensity toward to innovation and subsequent distribution strategies. This study further explains the direct relationship between innovation propensity and the strategic choice toward between long or short distribution channels.

Wine quality and sensory assessments: do distinct local groups of wine experts differ?

ABSTRACTThis research examines to what extent and in what ways two distinct groups of wine experts differ in their assessments of the same set of wines. Whereas previous research focused on selected wine panels whose members were in some cases trained for a specific tasting, we implemented a blind wine tasting among two distinct groups of wine experts: local wine experts and influencers in two socio-culturally different locations in the Okanagan Valley in British Columbia and Montreal in Quebec in Canada. Our findings suggest significant differences in how certain wine sensory attributes are evaluated. This article provides insights into how quality and taste are constructed by two distinct groups of wine experts. Our research results further shed light on how different types of wines might be perceived differently based on the locales in which they are marketed.

Wine Sensory Reference Standards to Align Wine Tasters on a Shared Terminology

Summary Goals: Reference standards for common aromas are used throughout the wine industry to align wine tasters on a shared terminology. The Wine Aroma Wheel provides descriptive terms and reference recipes for the third, most specific, tier. 1 We intended to expand the recipes to the second tier of the Wine Aroma Wheel. We wanted recipes to be easy to prepare and to only include common, edible ingredients that are available in grocery stores at low cost. We also wanted to provide preparation recommendations that enable users to exactly reproduce each recipe. Moreover, we aimed at developing a standardized process to define representative recipes for each term using a panel of wine experts. Key Findings: Using recipes, we helped define a subset of descriptive aroma terms relating to wine, allowing for more consistent discussions among wine-industry professionals that have been trained with these standards to associate the appropriate aromas with the corresponding descriptive terms. Defined a list of recipes for reference standards based on a subset of the terms represented in the Wine Aroma Wheel, by using a panel of wine experts (individuals either working or studying in the field of enology). Included preparation guidelines and storage requirements for each recipe to ensure accurate repeatability. Impact and Significance: Aroma description is a major challenge in the wine industry, as different groups of people, including consumers, winemakers, wine critics, sommeliers, tasting room staff, and others, use different terms to describe the same wines. Defining easily reproducible recipes for reference standards will help wine-industry professionals maintain a consistent terminology to describe wines by training employees with defined reference standards. We also hope other researchers will use these recipes in descriptive analyses and other sensory studies involving reference standards. Having a pool of common recipes among all studies will not only accelerate the process of making reference standards, but will also enable researchers to compare wines across studies, assuming panelists are well-trained.

Molecularly diverse odors advance olfactory threshold testing

AbstractMultiple‐compound mixtures of odorants are likely to produce significantly more reliable and favorable results of olfactory sensitivity testing. Within the current study, we aimed to investigate this hypothesis and determine the optimal number of odor compounds within a testing stimulus. One‐hundred individuals volunteered to participate in the study procedure wherein their olfactory threshold was measured with stimuli varying in the number of compounds during two sessions. We found that molecularly varied stimuli made olfactory threshold assessments relatively independent from an individual variability in sensitivity to specific odorants. Nevertheless, this was only true in certain conditions—depending on the number of components and quality of the odorants. On this basis, we outline future directions for studies aimed to advance assessments of the olfactory threshold by discussing the relationships between the chemical and physical properties of odorants and results of the threshold assessment they produce.Practical applicationsThis study provides empirical evidence that olfactory threshold testing becomes more favorable and reliable when an odor stimulus contains ~10 types of molecules. This is assumed due to an efficient activation of olfactory receptors. These findings advance the current state of knowledge in the field of biology by presenting behavioral responses to the augmented potential for binding molecules through olfactory receptors. Results presented in this manuscript constitute a significant improvement in the methods of olfactory function assessments and should be of interest to both scientific and clinical audience in the fields of neuroscience, chemosensory research, chemistry, and biology. These results are likely to translate to a more accurate assessment of olfactory abilities in commercial settings, that is, perfumes, or wine experts.

The roles of schema incongruity and expertise in consumers’ wine judgment

Broadening the present understanding of how expertise moderates the schema-incongruity effect (i.e., the notion that a product moderately incongruent with the schema evoked for it in memory is associated with a comparatively positive product evaluation), this study argues that people with higher, not lower, degrees of expertise experience incongruity and prefer moderately incongruent products over congruent ones. Because people with low expertise in complex product categories lack a developed schema against which to assess encountered products, they will be insensitive to incongruity. People with high expertise, on the other hand, typically have developed schemata and can therefore perceive incongruity and respond accordingly.Consumers with different levels of wine expertise participated in a study in which they were given congruent or incongruent information, as well as different levels of information elaboration, about a wine prior to tasting and evaluating it. The results of this study support the above argument: Expertise moderates the incongruity effect such that it is prevalent only for experts, and schema-level processing moderates expertise’s moderating effect on the incongruity effect.

Astringency evaluation of Tannat wines: Comparison of assessments from trained assessors and experts

AbstractAstringency is one of the differential characteristics of Tannat wine, the emblematic wine of the Uruguayan wine‐making industry. The aim of this study was twofold: First, to compare wine astringency characterization of experts and trained assessors, and second, to identify which astringency characteristics influence experts' perception of astringency quality. Six commercial Uruguayan Tannat wines were evaluated in triplicate by a trained assessors panel (n = 9). Assessors rated the global astringency intensity using a time‐intensity task, and described astringency subqualities using a check‐all‐that‐apply (CATA) question composed of 16 terms. Samples were also assessed by 30 experts who rated astringency intensity and quality using 9‐point structured scales. In addition, experts described astringency subqualities of samples and of their ideal high‐quality Tannat wine using a CATA question. Significant differences among samples were found in astringency intensity for both panels and expert's perceived quality. Agreement between trained assessors and experts in astringency intensity evaluations was observed, but differences in their description of astringency subqualities were found. Astringency quality as perceived by experts was not related only to astringency global intensity; astringency subqualities complex and velvety were the main drivers of astringency quality, while puckery, sand paper, and irritant significantly lowered quality scores.Practical applicationsWine astringency characterization is a very complex task that should ideally be performed by a group of trained assessors following standardized protocols. However, most wineries still rely on the judgment of wine experts for decision‐making. Results from the present work suggest that although trained assessors and experts evaluated wine astringency similarly, their description of astringency subqualities strongly differed.

Chemo-sensory approach for the identification of chemical compounds driving green character in red wines

The present work seeks to define the “green character” of red wines and characterise the groups of molecules potentially involved in that perception. Fifty-four wines were screened by wine experts for different levels of green character. Six different phenolic fractions were obtained by liquid chromatography (LC) and further submitted to sensory and chemical characterisation. The volatile fraction was screened by semipreparative LC, Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry (GC-O) and quantitative analysis. The green character was linked to vegetal aroma, astringency, green and dry tannins according to experts of the Somontano region. Non-volatile fractions containing tannins with mean degree of polymerisation of ten and smaller anthocyanin-derivative pigments (<tetramers) imparted astringency-related sensations such as dryness and stickiness, respectively. No specific aroma compounds were identified in the GC-O study of green wines, however the wines contained significantly higher levels of fusel alcohols. The interaction between isoamyl alcohol and the anthocyanin-derivative fraction and/or tannins is suggested to be involved in the formation of green character in red wines.

What Jancis Robinson Didn’t Know May Have Helped Her

A position has been advanced by a number of philosophers, notably by Burnham and Skilleas, that certain knowledge is required to aesthetically appreciate a fine wine. They further argue that pleasure is not an integral part of aesthetically appreciating wine. Their position implies that a novice cannot aesthetically appreciate a fine wine. This paper draws on research into tasting and psychology to rebut these claims. I argue that there is strong evidence from both the average consumer and from wine experts that they are unable to separate enjoyment from aesthetic evaluation; secondly, I argue that wine knowledge may actually preclude tasting of the wine as it exists in the glass due to perceptual bias. I conclude by arguing that it is unclear how exactly knowledge of things like terroir is supposed to affect the taste, as well as question what role conforming to a certain style plays in aesthetic success, as arguments that require knowledge for appreciation typically emphasize knowledge of styles of wine.

Understanding microoxygenation: Effect of viable yeasts and sulfur dioxide levels on the sensory properties of a Merlot red wine

Microoxygenation (Mox) is widely used in winemaking to improve color, in-mouth properties and aroma, but its use is not always predictable. Here we investigate the effect of Mox, (while monitoring viable yeasts and SO2 levels), on color, anthocyanin-derived pigments, tannins, aroma and in-mouth sensory properties as well as on hedonic rating by wine experts. Results on this Merlot wine show that the re-appearance of viable Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts modulates oxygen consumption rates, and dramatically increases acetaldehyde levels. This led to significant sensory changes, particularly for aroma. Mox reduced green-vegetable and reduction-related aromas, but also astringent mouth-feel properties related to tannins, and lower astringency was correlated with lower tannin activity. The Mox wines that exhibited yeast growth had higher hedonic scores from one group of expert tasters based on increased jammy/dried fruit flavors, while another group of tasters rated the non-Mox wines higher due to the green vegetable and spicy aromas. These results show that the chemical and sensory impact of a Mox treatment is highly dependent on the absence or presence of yeast growth, so it is important to monitor for yeast populations during Mox treatment.

Demystifying wine tasting: Cognitive psychology's contribution.

Over recent decades, cognitive psychology has made a significant contribution to our understanding of wine-tasting phenomena. At the most fundamental level the discipline's contribution has made us aware that even an apparently 'simple' judgment, such as noting that a wine's odour reflects over-ripe fruit, involves not just our nose but sophisticated cognitive processing. With its information-processing model of how people interact with their surrounding world, and its methodologies and theories regarding how we perceive, conceptualise, remember, image, make judgments, and communicate our experiences, cognitive psychology has markedly advanced our understanding of wine tasting and wine tasters. This review highlights notable wine sensory research outcomes that make evident the importance of a taster's cognitive processes in their wine analysis and appreciation. These include data providing evidence for colour-flavour perceptual bias, prototypical thinking, knowledge-based wine judgments, the close links between olfactory memory, autobiographical memory and emotion, and the notion of wine expertise. Further, it will be argued that such data demonstrate how a consensus model, still dominant in much wine sensory analysis, is limited at best and inappropriate for sensory analysis of complex products such as wine in many contexts. Critical to this argument is appreciating that differences amongst tasters, reflecting each individual's physiology, experience and knowledge, are valid data in themselves rather than 'error in the machine' as they were conceptualised within traditional consensus models of sensory analysis. The article terminates with reference to a promise for even greater understanding of wine tasting phenomena that the future offers by links between cognitive psychology's behavioural data and recent technological advances in neuropsychology and neurophysiology (e.g., cerebral imaging techniques).

Volatile Compounds Related to 'Stone Fruit' Aroma Attributes in Viognier and Chardonnay Wines.

A 'stone fruit' aroma is important in many white wine varieties and styles, but little is known about the chemical basis of this wine aroma attribute. A set of Viognier and Chardonnay wines that featured 'stone fruit' aroma attributes were selected by a panel of wine experts. The selected wines were characterized by sensory descriptive analysis and detailed volatile chemical composition analyses. This comprehensive data also allowed Viognier wine to be profiled for the first time. By partial least-squares regression, several esters and fatty acids and benzaldehyde were indicated as contributing to the 'peach' attribute; however, a reconstitution sensory study was unsuccessful in mimicking this attribute. A mixture of γ-lactones, monoterpenes, and aldehydes were positively correlated to the 'apricot' aroma, which were generally higher in the Viognier wines. Reconstitution studies confirmed that the monoterpenes linalool, geraniol, and nerol were the most important compounds for the mixture being perceived as having an 'apricot' aroma.