Wildlife Crime Research Articles

Profiling Wildlife Crimes Prosecuted Federally by the United States

Wildlife crime threatens national and global security. Much of the impact of wildlife crime is felt overseas, often in developing countries, where it threatens to catalyze conflicts, hinders economic development, undermines the rule of law, and threatens peace, amongst having other negative socio-economic and security impacts. But the impact of wildlife crime also is felt in United States, both directly by undercutting state and local conservation efforts, and indirectly, by injecting illegal wildlife and wildlife products into United States markets. While some work has delved into the sentencing dynamics of broader environmental crime in the United States, little research has explored the sentencing of wildlife crime, which is recognized as being distinct in nature by both governmental bodies and academics alike. The current study explores the federal prosecutions of wildlife crimes, focusing on profiling the wildlife crime cases charged by the US Department of Justice (DOJ). By profiling cases, we aim to explore (1) the application of charges associated with wildlife crime cases via their judgment documents; (2) the wildlife species involved in prosecuted cases; (3) the distribution of cases across US federal districts; and (4) and the sentencing patterns of wildlife crimes. Further statistical analyses explore the relationships between a variety of the variables extracted. Policy recommendations are set forth accordingly.

Awareness of environmental legislation as a deterrent for wildlife crime: A case with Masaai pastoralists, poison use and the Kenya Wildlife Act

Illegal wildlife crime is a global phenomenon, accelerating the ongoing biodiversity crisis. In the Old World, and particularly in Africa, illegal use of poisons to eliminate carnivores is the main driver of the continental vulture crisis. Knowledge about the underlying source and drivers of this threat is lacking for most areas, including Kenya, a global vulture and biodiversity hotspot. An extensive questionnaire survey of over 1300 respondents was run, using a specialized questioning technique and quantitative analytical approaches. Results show that, while pastoralists have a positive attitude towards vultures, over 20% of them use poisons to eliminate predators. Poisoning was largely driven by livestock losses to predators, and by negative attitude towards predators. Poisoning was less prevalent among respondents aware of the Kenya Wildlife Act. Overall, we suggest that a combination of top-down, e.g. legislation, and bottom-up (such as corrals or compensation) along with awareness campaigns may help reduce poisoning on the ground.

Application of molecular methods in forensic analyses of wild animals

In European countries, hunting of wildlife is regulated by various directives. However, illegal hunting activities are becoming more common. To deal with wildlife crime cases, it becomes necessary to select the best molecular markers for the analysis of animal sex, species, and relationships identification. This study investigated potential markers within chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) for animal forensics. By applying markers targeting nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA (the cytochrome b gene, hypervariable displacement loop (D-Loop) region, SRY and AMEL genes), the suspected illegal hunting cases were solved by the identification of wild species and sex. Currently, molecular forensic techniques are necessary before conclusions of its validation in forensic investigations.

Wildlife Security and International Relations

Kenya is endowed with an enormous biodiversity of ecosystems and wildlife species. This rich wildlife together with other attractions has for decades made the country an important tourist destination and hub for the lucrative tourist industry. Nonetheless, wildlife species continue to face threats such as commercial poaching for trophies and human wildlife conflicts that hinder their survival. It is important to mitigate these threats to ensure wildlife species do not go extinct and Kenya continues to pull tourists into the country. The absence of wildlife security poses a threat to international relations. This is because wildlife crimes increase global crime rates that often lead to instability in the global arena. Furthermore, wildlife crime has, throughout history, been a source of funding for rebel groups, militias and extremist groups like the Alshabaab in Somalia. These groups undermine good governance and development efforts of states. This study aims at analyzing the key threats to wildlife security in Kenya and international relations, examining the severity of wildlife threats both locally in Kenya and globally and establishing probable solutions that can be tailor-made to address threats to wildlife security in Kenya and international relations

PRACTICE OF ANIMALS TRADING IN ISLAMIC LAW & POSITIVE LAW OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES & ITS ECOSYSTEMS

Indonesia is a country that is very rich in the diversity of its natural resources. Both in terms of flora and fauna. However, Indonesia is an emerging country for the circulation of endangered animals that have been protected by law. The Animal Market is one of the places where several protected animals are circulated. In this study, the authors found a unique incident in the practice of buying and selling endangered animals that have been protected by this law, where the practice of buying and selling rare animals is carried out in markets managed by the government, namely under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The focus of this research is to find out how the practice of buying and selling endangered animals in the Animal Market and how the review of Islamic law and Act No. 5 of 1990 concerning the Conservation of Biological Natural Resources and Their Ecosystems. Through qualitative research methods and through a juridical normative approach, the researcher tries to uncover the focus of the problem above by going directly to the field to find facts which then leads to an analysis of Islamic law and Act No. 5 of 1990 concerning Conservation of Biological Natural Resources and Their Ecosystems. Data were taken through documentation, observation, and interviews. The data that has been obtained is presented in the form of a description in order to obtain conclusions. The results of the study explain that the sale and purchase of endangered animals protected under Islamic law is a sale that does not bring benefits, contains najis, does not belong to the seller wholly, causes damage to nature, and contains fraud. Meanwhile, when viewed from Act No. 5 of 1990 concerning the Conservation of Natural Resources and Their Ecosystems, the practice of buying and selling endangered animals that are protected illegally is a criminal act of wildlife crime in which the legal consequences of this crime are a maximum criminal sanction of ten years in prison and a fine of between 100 million and IDR 200 million rupiahs.

NGO-state relations in the monitoring of illegal forest logging and wildlife trafficking in Central Africa

Independent forest monitoring (IFM) by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) emerged in the late 1990s as a forest governance mechanism in response to rising forest crime in Asia and Central Africa. IFM is the use of an independent third party that, by agreement or not with state authorities, provides an assessment of legal compliance, and observation of and guidance on official forest law enforcement systems. The success of IFM by NGOs is therefore, inextricably linked to the nature of the relationship with state authorities yet this relationship has neither been explored nor understood. There is scant empirical research on this mechanism globally. This paper addresses these gaps through participatory observation, documentary analysis and interviews with leaders of five NGOs at the forefront of forest and wildlife monitoring in Central Africa. Using Najam (2000) 4-C framework, we find complex and fluid relationships ranging from cooperation, complementarity, confrontation and instrumentalization. Complementarity and confrontation emerge as the most important relationship types while cooperation is the least prevalent relationship. In response to challenges in the relationships, NGOs use a repertoire of strategies and tactics to influence the state in pursuit of their goals. Unfortunately, significant dependence on a limited stream of intermittent external donor funding and lack of clearly articulated influence and advocacy strategies, limit the potential contribution of IFM to the fight against forest and wildlife crime in Central Africa. The implications for IFM organisations, national governments and donor agencies are discussed.

Combination of Multiple Microsatellite Analysis and Genome-Wide SNP Genotyping Helps to Solve Wildlife Crime: A Case Study of Poaching of a Caucasian tur (Capra caucasica) in Russian Mountain National Park.

Simple SummaryDNA molecular techniques, including multiple microsatellite analysis and genome-wide SNP-genotyping, were used to unlock and prove the poaching of wild goats (Capra caucasica) in an area of the Caucasian mountains in Russia.Poaching is one of the major types of wildlife crime in Russia. Remnants of goats (presumably the wild endemic species, the Caucasian tur) were found in an area of the Caucasian mountains. The case study involves a suspected poacher whose vehicle was found to have two duffel bags containing pieces of a carcass, which he claimed was that of a goat from his flock. The aim of the forensic genetic analysis for this case was to (i) establish individual identity and (ii) perform species identification. DNA typing based on fourteen microsatellites revealed that STR-genotypes generated from pieces of evidence found at crime scene fully matched those obtained from the evidence seized from the suspect. The results of genome-wide SNP-genotyping, using Illumina Goat SNP50 BeadChip, provided evidence that the poached animal was a wild Caucasian tur (Capra caucasica). Thus, based on comprehensive molecular genetic analysis, evidence of poaching was obtained and sent to local authorities. To our knowledge, this case study is the first to attempt to use DNA chips in wildlife forensics of ungulates.

Wildlife crime, health and the legal trade-off

The Covid-19 outbreak has brought about fresh and intensified scrutiny of the wildlife trade, which substantively involves commerce in exotic pets. In response, major policy decisions involving trade bans have ensued, with calls for similar such action to be applied across the trade chain. Yet, these measures have been criticised, largely based on concerns that they risk exacerbating poverty, undermining human rights, damaging conservation incentives, and otherwise harming sustainable development and conservation efforts. Instead, many critics propose improved regulation of the status quo, with the intention of nurturing a legal, sustainable, safe, humane, and equitable wildlife trade. Herein, we provide a countering view that outlines how the risks presented by the wildlife trade are becoming increasingly recognised as being both manifold and severe; and raise concerns that the goal of a well-regulated wildlife trade is becoming increasingly exposed as a mirage. We conclude that wh...

Understanding Wildlife Crime from Eco-Existential and African Perspectives: A Psycho-Philosophical Investigation.

Wildlife crime has huge consequences regarding global environmental changes to animals, plants and the entire ecosystem. Combatting wildlife crime effectively requires a deep understanding of human–wildlife interactions and an analysis of the influencing factors. Conservation and green criminology are important in reducing wildlife crime, protecting wildlife and the ecosystem and informing policy-makers about best practices and strategies. However, the past years have shown that wildlife crime is not easy to combat and it is argued in this article that there are underlying existential “givens” and culture-specific aspects that need to be investigated to understand why wildlife crime is still on the rise. This theoretical article explores (eco-)existential perspectives, Greening’s four givens and selected African philosophical concepts, aiming to understand the complexities behind the prevalence of wildlife crime within global and African contexts.

Conservation-focused biobanks: A valuable resource for wildlife DNA forensics

Wildlife crime continues to pose a great threat to animal and plant populations and their environments. Among the different disciplines striving to halt the current biodiversity crisis, wildlife forensics has become instrumental in combating wildlife crime, with the application of DNA forensics methods to the gathering of evidence and intelligence for investigations gaining increasing importance. The wide range of services offered by wildlife DNA forensics laboratories requires the development of diagnostic genetic markers and robust molecular genetics protocols to ensure that any evidence gathered can withstand scrutiny in court. Appropriately vouchered reference samples are crucial for the generation of robust wildlife forensics DNA data; however, access to these reference samples for rare, endangered species, or those inhabiting remote areas, can be challenging. Here, we highlight the importance of conservation and research-focused biobanks as a source to obtain adequate reference samples for wildlife DNA forensics. Furthermore, we encourage collaboration between wildlife forensic geneticists and conservation and research-focused biobanks, as well as the sharing of digital DNA among the wildlife forensics community, as strategies to overcome the challenges associated with sample and DNA data acquisition and hence accelerate the successful implementation of law enforcement for combating wildlife crime.

Morphological analysis: A powerful tool in wildlife forensic biology

It is a truism that “structure is the first thing that we notice whenever looking at organisms” (Gans 1985), and the description and analysis of structure is the province of the science of morphology. Morphological analysis is a well-established and cost-effective technique for the taxonomic identification of wildlife remains. Despite this, it is under-utilized in wildlife crime investigations for reasons including a shortage of trained specialists, the challenge of accessing reference specimens, and the perceived greater rigor of DNA analysis. This paper reviews the methodology of morphological analysis, addresses perceived challenges, and demonstrates the effectiveness of the technique in wildlife forensic biology casework at the National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Morphological species identification of wildlife forensic evidence based on digital images

Species identifications of wildlife items from digital images are critical to many wildlife crime investigations. Digital images downloaded from social media or cell phones may be the only wildlife evidence available for examination. In other cases, examination of emailed photographs by morphological experts may provide probable cause for seizure of suspect items in time-sensitive situations such as customs inspections. This paper outlines protocols to document provisional identifications from emailed photos, and to assure the integrity of digital images submitted as evidence. These are based on the practices followed at the National Fish and Wildlife Laboratory (NFWFL) of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Office of Law Enforcement (OLE).

National bird, Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus): Using DNA technology for species identification from degraded sample from Uttarakhand, India

• Paper describes a bloodstain sample being used to determine a species identity in Uttarakhand, India. • Effective application of DNA technology for species identification from highly degraded sample in Wildlife forensic. • Paper underlines the potential importance of wildlife DNA forensic in species conservation. Species identification from the samples obtained in wildlife crime cases usually presents a difficult challenge for forensic science investigators. The present paper describes a short study where a blood stain sample was recovered from an area outside the protected area network and used to determine a species identity. The mitochondrial DNA region of the questioned sample was amplified and sequenced using universal primers of cytochrome b gene (Cyt b) and 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) for species identity. The obtained sequencing results were compared with the most homologous sequences extracted from the NCBI-GenBank database. A phylogenetic tree was prepared with the aligned sequences to determine the species identity with strong bootstrap support. The mean distance and species score generated revealed that the grade of sequence similarity showed maximum homology (100 %) with the sequence obtained from the database. Based on the genetic analysis, the collected sample related to Indian Peafowl ( Pavo cristatus ) which is listed as Schedule I under the Indian Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.

The Status Quo and Attribution of Wildlife Crimes: A Study of Cases in China From the Perspective of Ecological Economic Ethics.

The COVID-19 pandemic, which has ravaged the world, has led to a rethinking of the relationship between humans and nature and the clichés of the economic-centered model. Thus, the ecological economy has been reviewed, especially from an ethical worldview. This paper uses statistical methods to retrieve and categorize 3,646 wildlife crime cases for analysis and quantitative research. It adopts legal and ethical perspectives to analyze the subject and the subjective, incidence, and sentencing factors of wildlife crimes and uses the ecological economic ethical model to measure wildlife crimes. We argue that the existing judicial system fails to answer the difficulties of the economic ethics of wildlife crimes. It is recommended that ecological and economic ethical awareness be internalized. We suggest calling for comprehensive legislation on wildlife crimes from the perspective of ecological economic ethics to effectively prevent and reduce wildlife crime and eventually promote public health.

Fumbling Out the Effective Pathways to Apply the Wildlife and Forest Analytic Toolkit in the Mekong Region: Looking at Data and Analysis Perspectives

The Wildlife and Forest Analytic Toolkit, introduced by the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC), is designed to increase the effectiveness of measures combating wildlife and forest crimes (WAFCs). Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) countries have applied this toolkit as one of their priority actions after recognizing concerns about the biodiversity system and conservational zone through several illegal wildlife trade (IWT) activities. Although the toolkit has realized its fundamental objectives to readjust legal frameworks, enhance enforcement involvement, and improve their judicial and prosecutorial operations, the last components of data and analysis have not yet been implemented. This leads to slow updates of both trends and patterns concerning WAFCs that raise questions about the real levels of exploitation in the region. Using gray literature with published materials, combined with the IWT’s database in the CITES system, this study examines why the data and analysis component of the Toolkit created obstacles in the GMS countries. Findings point to there being at least four main challenges to implementing data and analysis as the toolkit has recommended in the region: (1) availability and reliability of data; (2) data collection; (3) data resources (internal vs. external level); and (4) analytic research and its related monitors. Some practical recommendations call for further discussions. Meanwhile, updated information and specific data relating to zoonotic disease transmission are timely, considering the coronavirus pandemic.

The Necessity of Cooperation in Criminal Wildlife Matters: A Case Study of The Challenges Faced and Cooperative Mechanisms Available to Canadian Wildlife Officials

This article presents and analyzes the mechanisms for cooperation used by wildlife officials in criminal wildlife matters in Canada, through qualitative in-depth interviews with ten Canadian experts. Canada has been used as a transit country for the illicit wildlife trade (IWT) and there is a domestic, regional, and international market for “product” derived from Canadian species. The majority of larger scale criminal cases have involved interagency or bilateral cooperation between criminal justice officials, particularly with the United States. An analysis of these cooperative efforts has been needed. This article’s findings suggest that: (1) wildlife enforcement in Canada relies on cooperation due to scarce resources and lack of priority given to wildlife crimes; (2) interagency training aids forensic capabilities; (3) more prosecutorial dedication to wildlife crimes in Canada, larger budgets, and supported initiatives for enforcement and forensics may result in the detection and prosecution of more crimes; and (4) cooperation should be actively supported because it appears to be the backbone of criminal wildlife investigations in the country, which have exposed different levels of criminal sophistication and involvement in the IWT. The findings help identify Canadian enforcement obstacles and best practices that highlight the need for increased political will and public support for wildlife enforcement and wildlife forensics in combating and identifying wildlife crime.

CITES enforcement information sharing—if you don’t know where you’ve come from … you don’t know where you’re going

This study explores the evolution of the compliance mechanism of the CITES Convention and draws a historic timeline describing how various political and economic factors changed the course of decision making on wildlife enforcement information sharing. Focusing more on the deliberations at the United Nations and in particular at the CITES Conference of Parties (CoP) and standing committee meetings, the authors excavate various paradigm shifts within CITES enforcement and compliance decisions, extending from the origin of the convention to the recent developments at CITES CoP 18. Here, the authors do not seek to evaluate the whole history of the CITES Convention itself. Rather, they investigate a specific aspect, namely, enforcement matters and the role of stakeholders and events that influenced the CITES decision-making process on enforcement information sharing and development of enforcement information systems. The main objective of this article is to address a key question: What were the reasons for the failure of enforcement information sharing in CITES? This study is particularly relavent during the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, where there is little evidence to show the link between illegal wildlife crime and COVID-19.

Poverty, Pandemics, and Wildlife Crime

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a global recession and mass unemployment. Through reductions in trade and international tourism, the pandemic has particularly affected rural economies of tropical low- and middle-income countries where biodiversity is concentrated. As this adversity is exacerbating poverty in these regions, it is important to examine the relationship between poverty and wildlife crime in order to better anticipate and respond to the impact of the pandemic on biodiversity. To that end, we explore the relationship between poverty and wildlife crime, and its relevance in the context of a global pandemic. We examine literature from conservation, criminology, criminal justice, and social psychology to piece together how the various dimensions of poverty relate directly and indirectly to general criminal offending and the challenges this poses to conservation. We provide a theoretical framework and a road map for understanding how poverty alleviation relates to reduced wildlife crime through improved economic, human, socio-cultural, political, and protective capabilities. We also discuss the implications of this research for policy in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. We conclude that multidimensional poverty and wildlife crime are intricately linked, and that initiatives to enhance each of the five dimensions can reduce the poverty-related risks of wildlife crime.

What is the evidence that counter‐wildlife crime interventions are effective for conserving African, Asian and Latin American wildlife directly threatened by exploitation? A systematic map protocol

Abstract Human activities are driving a global biodiversity crisis. In response, a broad range of conservation actions have been implemented. With finite resources available, and a rapidly narrowing window, the scientific and policy communities have acknowledged the need to better understand the effectiveness of interventions for conserving threatened species. Given the recent emphasis on the use of counter wildlife crime interventions (i.e. those that directly protect wildlife from illegal harvest, detect and sanction rule‐breakers, and interdict and control illegal wildlife commodities), there is a clear need to summarize the available evidence on biological and threat reduction outcomes of such actions to help make evidence‐informed management and funding decisions. Here, we present a protocol for a systematic map that will collate the existing body of literature addressing the effectiveness of counter‐wildlife crime interventions for protecting targeted species. Our focus will be on select species or species groups directly threatened by exploitation (i.e. illegal harming whether by harvest as a resource or for control/persecution) and native to Africa, Asia and Latin America, which are regions that have experienced significant wildlife populations declines. The systematic map will aim to capture available evidence found in commercially published and grey literature. We will search for the literature using four publication databases, Google Scholar, 36 specialist websites and databases and sources identified through a call for evidence among relevant networks. Eligibility screening will be conducted at two stages: (1) title and abstract and (2) full text. Relevant information from included papers will be extracted and entered into a searchable, coded database (MS‐Excel). Narrative synthesis and descriptive statistics will describe the key characteristics of the relevant evidence base (e.g. geographic location, species, interventions, direct threats, outcomes and study designs). Using visual heat maps, we will identify key knowledge gaps warranting further research and clusters of evidence that could serve as topics for future systematic reviews. The resulting map will guide further exploration on evaluating the effectiveness of counter‐wildlife crime interventions, and aid in building an evidence base that supports both management and funding decisions to ensure efficient use of limited resources and maximal conservation benefits.

Protected Area Rangers as Cultural Brokers? Implications for Wildlife Crime Prevention in Viet Nam

The scope, scale, and socio-environmental impacts of wildlife crime pose diverse risks to people, animals, and environments. With direct knowledge of the persistence and dynamics of wildlife crime, protected area rangers can be both an essential source of information on, and front-line authority for, preventing wildlife crime. Beyond patrol and crime scene data collected by rangers, solutions to wildlife crime could be better built off the knowledge and situational awareness of rangers, in particular rangers' relationships with local communities and their unique ability to engage them. Rangers are often embedded in the communities surrounding the conserved areas which they are charged with protecting, which presents both challenges and opportunities for their work on wildlife crime prevention. Cultural brokerage refers to the process by which intermediaries, like rangers, facilitate interactions between other relevant stakeholders that are separate yet proximate to one another, or that lack access to, or trust in, one another. Cultural brokers can function as gatekeepers, representatives, liaisons, coordinators, or iterant brokers; these forms vary by how information flows and how closely aligned the broker is to particular stakeholders. The objectives of this paper are to use the example of protected area rangers in Viet Nam to (a) characterize rangers' cultural brokerage of resources, information, and relationships and (b) discuss ranger-identified obstacles to the prevention of wildlife crime as an example of brokered knowledge. Using in-depth face-to-face interviews with rangers and other protected area staff (N = 31, 71% rangers) in Pu Mat National Park, 2018, we found that rangers regularly shift between forms of cultural brokerage. We offer a typology of the diverse forms of cultural brokerage that characterize rangers' relationships with communities and other stakeholders. We then discuss ranger-identified obstacles to wildlife protection as an example of brokered knowledge. These results have implications for designing interventions to address wildlife crime that both improve community-ranger interactions and increase the efficiency of wildlife crime prevention.