Exposure Of Wild Birds Research Articles

Mercury and rare earth elements (REEs) show different spatial trends in feathers of Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) breeding along the Adriatic Sea coast, Italy.

Feather analysis is an ethical and effective method for assessing the exposure of wild birds to environmental contamination due to trace elements and organic pollutants. We used feather to monitor the exposure to three toxic and non-essential metals (Hg, Cd, and Pb) and rare earth elements (REEs) of Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) breeding in different coastal areas (Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Marche, Abruzzo, and Apulia) along the Italian coast of the Adriatic Sea. Feathers (n = 113) were collected from April to June. Feather concentrations evidenced a significant exposure to Hg (13.05 ± 1.71 mg kg−1 dw) and REEs (447.3 ± 52.8 ng g−1 dw) in the Kentish plover breeding in Veneto (n = 21) compared to the other coastal areas, with several individuals showing Hg concentrations above the adverse effect (5 mg kg−1 dw) and high-risk (9.14 mg kg−1 dw) thresholds reported for birds. Higher REE concentrations compared to Marche (n = 29), Abruzzo (n = 11) and Apulia (n = 13) were also reported for birds breeding in Emilia-Romagna (474.9 ± 41.9 ng g−1 dw; n = 29). The exposure to Cd and Pb was low in all the coastal areas, and only a few samples (n = 6 and n = 4 for Cd and Pb, respectively) exceeded the adverse effect thresholds (0.1 and 4 mg kg−1 for Cd and Pb, respectively). A significant sex-related difference was observed for REE-concentrations, with females showing higher concentration than males. These data highlight the need to monitor the exposure of the Kentish plover to Hg and REEs, especially in the northern basin of the Adriatic Sea, since these elements might negatively affect species' reproductive success and threaten its conservation.

Serological evidence of Newcastle disease virus antibodies in wild birds in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Wild birds have been reported to be reservoirs of viral diseases of poultry, and play an epidemiological role in their maintenance and spread. A serological survey was undertaken to determine the evidence of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) antibodies in wild birds in Zaria Kaduna State, Nigeria. A total of 150 apparently healthy wild birds comprising 30 each laughing dove, speckled pigeons, cattle egrets, village weavers and African silver bills were sampled. Sera collected were analysed for the presence of antibodies against NDV and avian paramyxovirus‑2 (APMV‑2) using the haemagglutination inhibition test. The results showed an overall seroprevalence of 4% (95% CI: 2.05‑10.1) to NDV. African silver bill showed a seroprevalence of 10.0% (95% CI: 2.61‑24.9) NDV antibodies while seroprevalence of 3.3% (95% CI: 0.16‑15.4) was recorded for cattle egrets, village weavers and laughing doves respectively. No statistically significant difference existed for NDV seroprevalence (P>0.05) among the different species of wild birds. All the 150 sera tested negative for APMV‑2 antibodies. The result of this study confirmed the exposure of wild birds to NDV in the study area. Continuous surveillance with isolation and characterization of NDV in the wild birds is therefore recommended for strategic planning for control.

Domestic Waste and Wastewaters as Potential Sources of Pharmaceuticals in Nestling White Storks (Ciconia ciconia).

Information on the exposure of wild birds to pharmaceuticals from wastewater and urban refuse is scarce despite the enormous amount of drugs consumed and discarded by human populations. We tested for the presence of a battery of antibiotics, NSAIDs, and analgesics in the blood of white stork (Ciconia ciconia) nestlings in the vicinity of urban waste dumps and contaminated rivers in Madrid, central Spain. We also carried out a literature review on the occurrence and concentration of the tested compounds in other wild bird species to further evaluate possible shared exposure routes with white storks. The presence of two pharmaceutical drugs (the analgesic acetaminophen and the antibiotic marbofloxacin) out of fourteen analysed in the blood of nestlings was confirmed in 15% of individuals (n = 20) and in 30% of the nests (n = 10). The apparently low occurrence and concentration (acetaminophen: 9.45 ng mL-1; marbofloxacin: 7.21 ng mL-1) in nestlings from different nests suggests the uptake through food acquired in rubbish dumps rather than through contaminated flowing water provided by parents to offspring. As with other synthetic materials, different administration forms (tablets, capsules, and gels) of acetaminophen discarded in household waste could be accidentally ingested when parent storks forage on rubbish to provide meat scraps to their nestlings. The presence of the fluoroquinolone marbofloxacin, exclusively used in veterinary medicine, suggests exposure via consumption of meat residues of treated animals for human consumption found in rubbish dumps, as documented previously at higher concentrations in vultures consuming entire carcasses of large livestock. Control measures and ecopharmacovigilance frameworks are needed to minimize the release of pharmaceutical compounds from the human population into the environment.

Risk Factors for Exposure of Wild Birds to West Nile Virus in A Gradient of Wildlife-Livestock Interaction.

West Nile virus (WNV) transmission rate is shaped by the interaction between virus reservoirs and vectors, which may be maximized in farm environments. Based on this hypothesis, we screened for WNV in wild birds in three scenarios with decreasing gradient of interaction with horses: (i) the farm (A1); (ii) the neighborhood (A2); and (iii) a wild area (A3). We captured wild birds and analyzed their sera for WNV antibodies by blocking ELISA and micro-virus neutralization test. Flavivirus infections were tested with generic and specific PCR protocols. We parameterized linear mixed models with predictors (bird abundance and diversity, vector abundance, vector host abundance, and weather quantities) to identify Flavivirus spp. and WNV exposure risk factors. We detected a low rate of Flavivirus infections by PCR (0.8%) and 6.9% of the birds were seropositive by ELISA. Exposure to Flavivirus spp. was higher in A1 (9%) than in A2 and A3 (5.6% and 5.8%, respectively). Bird diversity was the most relevant predictor of exposure risk and passerines dominated the on-farm bird community. Our results suggest that measures deterring the use of the farm by passerines should be implemented because the environmental favorability of continental Mediterranean environments for WNV is increasing and more outbreaks are expected.

Molecular epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis in pigs and risk factors associated with causing Japanese encephalitis in pigs of Lakhimpur, the first case reported in the district of North East India.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major public health problem in India. The first outbreaks of JE have been reported from the North-eastern regions of Assam, particularly from the Lakhimpur district of Assam between July-August 1989. In Assam every year many people died due to JE. This study was performed to investigate the molecular epidemiology of JE in pigs in Lakhimpur district of Assam and the risk factors associated with causing Japanese encephalitis in pigs. This study will help to map out the endemic regions and to know where and when to apply the most control strategies towards the prevention and control of the disease. A total of 342 serum samples from pigs were collected from 10 organized and 20 unorganized farms from 9 blocks and recorded to age, sex and breed and tested by RT-PCR. Pig farms and the surrounding environment were studied for assessment of farm-level risk factors responsible for JEV infection in pigs. Out of 342 samples tested for detection of the E gene of JEV, 14 samples were found to be positive with a prevalence rate of 4.09%. Age, sex and breed-wise higher cases were found in at the age group above 12 months, sex wise female and breed-wise local pigs. Pig farms less than 500 meters from risk factors like rice field, stagnant water source, wild bird exposure to farm and mosquito exposure at farm/ bite to pigs, found to be more numbers of JE cases. Molecular epidemiology of JE in pigs, and humans; positive at Lakhimpur recommend the need for uninterrupted surveillance of this virus in pigs specially those areas where pig population is more and all risk factors are present.

Infectious bursal disease virus in free-living wild birds: A systematic review and meta-analysis of its sero-viroprevalence on a global scale.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is an economically important pathogen for poultry, whereas knowledge of its occurrence in non-poultry hosts is limited. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to summarize the up-to-date knowledge about the sero-viroprevalence of IBDV in wild birds on a global scale. A computerized literature research was performed on PubMed, Scopus, CAB Direct and Web of Science to find relevant publications, along with the screening of reference lists. Journal articles, book chapters, scientific correspondences, conference proceedings and short communications on IBDV virological and/or serological surveys in free-living wild birds published between 1970 and 2021 were considered as eligible. Among 184 studies found, 36 original contributions met the pre-established criteria. A random-effect model was applied to calculate pooled seroprevalence estimates with 95% confidence intervals, whereas the paucity of virological studies (n=6) only allowed a qualitative description of the data. The pooled seroprevalence was estimated to be 6% (95% CI: 3%-9%) and a high heterogeneity was detected (I2 =96%). Sub-group analyses were not performed due to the scarcity of available information about hypothetical moderators. With respect to virological studies, IBDV was detected in Anseriformes, Columbiformes, Galliformes, Passeriformes and Pelecaniformes and different strains related to poultry infection were isolated. Our estimates of serological data showed a moderate exposure of wild birds to IBDV. The susceptibility of different species to IBDV infection underlines their potential role in its epidemiology at least as carriers or spreaders. Indeed, the isolation of IBDV in healthy wild birds with a migratory attitude might contribute to a long-distance spread of the virus and to strain diversity. While a wild reservoir host could not be clearly identified, we believe our work provides useful insights for conducting future surveys which are needed to broaden our knowledge of IBDV occurrence in wild birds.

Field evidence of UK wild bird exposure to fludioxonil and extrapolation to other pesticides used as seed treatments

We determine the exposure of wild birds to pesticides via consumption of fludioxonil-treated winter wheat seeds following autumn drilling. We recorded the density of seeds left on the soil surface, bird density, and consumption of pesticide-treated seed by birds using camera traps. We calculated the dose ingested by each bird species in a single feeding bout and if they ate treated seeds exclusively for 1 day. We extrapolated this for an additional 19 pesticides commonly used as seed treatments, assuming equal consumption rates. All three fields contained grains on the soil surface (mean 7.14 seeds/m2 on sowing day). In total, 1,374 granivorous birds spanning 18 different species were observed in the fields, with 11 species filmed eating the seeds. Fludioxonil appears to pose a low risk to birds, with <1.14% of the LD50 potentially ingested by a bird for a daily maximum amount of seeds. Analysis of the further 19 pesticides commonly used as seed dressings suggests that the neonicotinoid insecticides imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam represent the highest risk for granivorous birds. For example, chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) could consume 63% of LD50 of imidacloprid in a single feeding bout, and 370% in a day. Further investigation is clearly required to determine whether seeds treated with these other pesticides are consumed as readily as those treated with fludioxonil, as if so this is likely to cause significant harm.

Multidrug-Resistant Phenotypes of Escherichia coli Isolates in Wild Canarian Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus majorensis).

Simple SummaryIncreasing antimicrobial resistance is a global problem for both human and animal health. Escherichia coli is frequently used as a “sentinel” for antimicrobial resistance and as an indicator of faecal contamination of the environment. This study is a characterisation of the antimicrobial resistance phenotypes of E. coli isolates obtained from cloacal samples of Canarian Egyptian vultures. A total of 65 chickens and 38 adult and immature birds were studied. Antimicrobial susceptibility to 16 antibiotics of 12 different categories was determined in 103 E. coli isolates. We found a 39.8% prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) E. coli. Almost all MDR phenotypes found included resistance to tetracycline, an antibiotic widely used in veterinary medicine. Resistance has also been found to chloramphenicol (13 MDR phenotypes), imipenem (5 MDR phenotypes) and others. Wild birds can act as reservoirs and disseminators of MDR E. coli, transferring them via faeces to the environment, feed or water. Our results highlight the need to minimise exposure of wild birds to antimicrobials from human activities to avoid the spread of antimicrobial resistance.The presence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli in cloacal samples from Canarian Egyptian vultures was investigated. Samples were obtained from chicks (n = 65) and from adults and immature birds (n = 38). Antimicrobial susceptibility to 16 antibiotics included in 12 different categories was determined for 103 E. coli isolates. MDR was defined as acquired non-susceptibility to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial categories. Forty-seven different resistance phenotypes were detected: 31 MDR (41 isolates) and 16 non-MDR (62 isolates). One isolate was resistant to all 12 antimicrobial categories and 2 phenotypes included resistance to 9 antimicrobial categories. Imipenem resistance was included in five MDR phenotypes, corresponding to five different isolates. Statistically significant differences in prevalence of MDR-phenotypes were found between chicks in nests and the rest of the animals, probably due to the shorter exposure time of chicks to antimicrobials. The main risk derived from MDR bacteria in scavengers is that it threatens the treatment of wild animals in rescue centres and could be transferred to other animals in the facilities. In addition to this, it could pose a health risk to veterinarians or other staff involved in wildlife protection programmes.

Concentration and origin of lead (Pb) in liver and bone of Eurasian buzzards (Buteo buteo) in the United Kingdom

Ingestion of lead (Pb) derived from ammunition used in the hunting of game animals is recognised to be a significant potential source of Pb exposure of wild birds, including birds of prey. However, there are only limited data for birds of prey in Europe regarding tissue concentrations and origins of Pb. Eurasian buzzards (Buteo buteo) found dead in the United Kingdom during an 11-year period were collected and the concentrations of Pb in the liver and femur were measured. Concentrations in the liver consistent with acute exposure to Pb were found in 2.7% of birds and concentration in the femur consistent with exposure to lethal levels were found in 4.0% of individuals. Pb concentration in the femur showed no evidence of consistent variation among or within years, but was greater for old than for young birds. The Pb concentration in the liver showed no effect of the birds’ age, but varied markedly among years and showed a consistent tendency to increase substantially within years throughout the UK hunting season for gamebirds. The resemblance of the stable isotope composition of Pb from buzzard livers to that of Pb from the types of shotgun ammunition most widely-used in the UK increased markedly with increasing Pb concentration in the liver. Stable isotope results were consistent with 57% of the mass of Pb in livers of all of the buzzards sampled being derived from shotgun pellets, with this proportion being 89% for the birds with concentrations indicating acute exposure to Pb. Hence, most of the Pb acquired by Eurasian buzzards which have liver concentrations likely to be associated with lethal and sublethal effects is probably obtained when they prey upon or scavenge gamebirds and mammals shot using Pb shotgun pellets.

Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A residues in supplementary foods used for wild birds

Provision of supplementary food for garden birds is practiced on a large scale in multiple countries. While this resource has benefits for wild bird populations, concern has been expressed regarding the potential for contamination of foodstuffs by mycotoxins, and the implications this might have for wildlife health. We investigated whether aflatoxin (AF) and ochratoxin A (OA) residues are present in foodstuffs sold for wild bird consumption at point of sale in Great Britain using high pressure liquid chromatography analyses. The hypothesis that production of these mycotoxins occurs in British climatic conditions, or under storage conditions after the point of sale, was tested under experimental conditions but was not proved by our study. While the majority of peanut samples were negative for AF residues, 10% (10/98) of samples at point of sale and 11% (13/119) of those across the storage and climate exposure treatment replicates contained AFB1 that exceeded the maximum permitted limit of 20 μg/kg. No significant difference was found in the detection of either mycotoxin between branded and non-branded products. The clinical significance, if any, of exposure of wild birds to mycotoxins requires further investigation. Nevertheless, the precautionary principle should be adopted and best practice steps to reduce the likelihood of wild bird exposure to mycotoxins are recommended.

Experimental Infection and Transmission of Newcastle Disease Vaccine Virus in Four Wild Passerines.

Our prior work has shown that live poultry vaccines have been intermittently isolated from wild birds sampled during field surveillance studies for Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Thus, we experimentally investigated the susceptibility of four native agriculturally associated wild bird species to the NDV LaSota vaccine and evaluated the shedding dynamics, potential transmission from chickens, and humoral antibody responses. To test susceptibility, we inoculated wild-caught, immunologically NDV-naïve house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus; n = 16), brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater; n = 9), northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis; n = 6), and American goldfinches (Spinus tristis; n = 12) with 0.1 ml (106.7 mean embryo infectious doses [EID50/ml]) of NDV LaSota vaccine via the oculo-nasal route. To test transmission between chickens and wild birds, adult specific-pathogen-free white leghorn chickens were inoculated similarly and cohoused in separate isolators with two to five wild birds of the species listed above. This design resulted in three treatments: wild bird direct inoculation (five groups) and wild bird exposure to one (two groups) or two inoculated chickens (six groups), respectively. Blood and oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected before and after infection with the live vaccine. All wild birds that were directly inoculated with the LaSota vaccine shed virus as demonstrated by virus isolation (VI). Cardinals were the most susceptible species based on shedding viruses from 1 to 11 days postinoculation (dpi) with titers up to 104.9 EID50/ml. Although LaSota viruses were shed by all inoculated chickens and were present in the drinking water, most noninoculated wild birds cohoused with these chickens remained uninfected for 14 days as evidenced by VI. However, one American goldfinch tested positive for vaccine transmission by VI at 7 dpi and one house finch tested positive for vaccine transmission by real-time reverse-transcription PCR at 13 dpi. Only one directly inoculated cowbird (out of three) and two cardinals (out of two) developed NDV-specific hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers of 16, 16, and 128, respectively. No clinical signs were detected in the chickens or the wild birds postinoculation.

Human Seroprevalence to 11 Zoonotic Pathogens in the U.S. Arctic, Alaska.

Background: Due to their close relationship with the environment, Alaskans are at risk for zoonotic pathogen infection. One way to assess a population's disease burden is to determine the seroprevalence of pathogens of interest. The objective of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of 11 zoonotic pathogens in people living in Alaska. Methods: In a 2007 avian influenza exposure study, we recruited persons with varying wild bird exposures. Using sera from this study, we tested for antibodies to Cryptosporidium spp., Echinococcus spp., Giardia intestinalis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spp., Brucella spp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, California serogroup bunyaviruses, and hepatitis E virus (HEV). Results: Eight hundred eighty-seven persons had sera tested, including 454 subsistence bird hunters and family members, 160 sport bird hunters, 77 avian wildlife biologists, and 196 persons with no wild bird exposure. A subset (n = 481) of sera was tested for California serogroup bunyaviruses. We detected antibodies to 10/11 pathogens. Seropositivity to Cryptosporidium spp. (29%), California serotype bunyaviruses (27%), and G. intestinalis (19%) was the most common; 63% (301/481) of sera had antibodies to at least one pathogen. Using a multivariable logistic regression model, Cryptosporidium spp. seropositivity was higher in females (35.7% vs. 25.0%; p = 0.01) and G. intestinalis seropositivity was higher in males (21.8% vs. 15.5%; p = 0.02). Alaska Native persons were more likely than non-Native persons to be seropositive to C. burnetii (11.7% vs. 3.8%; p = 0.005) and less likely to be seropositive to HEV (0.4% vs. 4.1%; p = 0.01). Seropositivity to Cryptosporidium spp., C. burnetii, HEV, and Echinococcus granulosus was associated with increasing age (p ≤ 0.01 for all) as was seropositivity to ≥1 pathogen (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: Seropositivity to zoonotic pathogens is common among Alaskans with the highest to Cryptosporidium spp., California serogroup bunyaviruses, and G. intestinalis. This study provides a baseline for use in assessing seroprevalence changes over time.

Detection of antibodies to avian influenza, infectious bronchitis and Newcastle disease viruses in wild birds in three states of Nigeria

This study aimed at determining the possible exposure of wild birds to avian influenza (AI), infectious bronchitis (IB) and Newcastle disease (ND) viruses. Apparently healthy species of free flying wild birds were captured using locally-made baited traps set at strategic watering and feeding locations and in poultry farms. Few species of captive wild birds in households and live bird markets (LBMs) were also sampled. Sera from blood samples collected were analyzed for antibodies to AI, IB and ND viruses using enzyme linked immunorsorbent assay (ELISA). Out of the 209 sera analysed, Bubulcus ibis was 24%, 70% and 27% while Psittacus erithacus was 7%, 21% and 7% positive for antibodies to AI, IB and ND viruses, respectively. Branta canadensis , was 35% and 64% positive for antibodies to AI and IB viruses. Balearica regulorum and Numidia maleagris were 100% and 9% positive to AI virus antibodies. Free flying birds were 19 (15%), 57 (45%) and 27 (21%) positive while captive wild birds were 11%, 20% and 14% positive to AI, IB and ND viruses antibodies, respectively. The results of this study confirm that wild birds were exposed to AI, IB and ND viruses. There was co-exposure of some wild bird species to AI, IB and ND viruses. These birds could possibly serve as carriers and disseminators of AI, IB and ND to poultry. Therefore, control measures against these important poultry diseases should include incursion of wild birds. Keywords: Avian influenza, Infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease, Nigeria, Wild birds

Do Wild Great Tits Avoid Exposure to Light at Night?

Studies of wild populations have provided important insights into the effects of artificial light at night on organisms, populations and ecosystems. However, in most studies the exact amount of light at night individuals are exposed to remains unknown. Individuals can potentially control their nighttime light exposure by seeking dark spots within illuminated areas. This uncertainty makes it difficult to attribute effects to a direct effect of light at night, or to indirect effects, e.g., via an effect of light at night on food availability. In this study, we aim to quantify the nocturnal light exposure of wild birds in a previously dark forest-edge habitat, experimentally illuminated with three different colors of street lighting, in comparison to a dark control. During two consecutive breeding seasons, we deployed male great tits (Parus major) with a light logger measuring light intensity every five minutes over a 24h period. We found that three males from pairs breeding in brightly illuminated nest boxes close to green and red lamp posts, were not exposed to more artificial light at night than males from pairs breeding further away. This suggests, based on our limited sample size, that these males could have been avoiding light at night by choosing a roosting place with a reduced light intensity. Therefore, effects of light at night previously reported for this species in our experimental set-up might be indirect. In contrast to urban areas where light is omnipresent, bird species in non-urban areas may evade exposure to nocturnal artificial light, thereby avoiding direct consequences of light at night.

Oseltamivir Resistance in Influenza A(H6N2) Caused by an R292K Substitution in Neuraminidase Is Not Maintained in Mallards without Drug Pressure.

BackgroundWild waterfowl is the natural reservoir of influenza A virus (IAV); hosted viruses are very variable and provide a source for genetic segments which can reassort with poultry or mammalian adapted IAVs to generate novel species crossing viruses. Additionally, wild waterfowl act as a reservoir for highly pathogenic IAVs. Exposure of wild birds to the antiviral drug oseltamivir may occur in the environment as its active metabolite can be released from sewage treatment plants to river water. Resistance to oseltamivir, or to other neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs), in IAVs of wild waterfowl has not been extensively studied.Aim and MethodsIn a previous in vivo Mallard experiment, an influenza A(H6N2) virus developed oseltamivir resistance by the R292K substitution in the neuraminidase (NA), when the birds were exposed to oseltamivir. In this study we tested if the resistance could be maintained in Mallards without drug exposure. Three variants of resistant H6N2/R292K virus were each propagated during 17 days in five successive pairs of naïve Mallards, while oseltamivir exposure was decreased and removed. Daily fecal samples were analyzed for viral presence, genotype and phenotype.Results and ConclusionWithin three days without drug exposure no resistant viruses could be detected by NA sequencing, which was confirmed by functional NAI sensitivity testing. We conclude that this resistant N2 virus could not compete in fitness with wild type subpopulations without oseltamivir drug pressure, and thus has no potential to circulate among wild birds. The results of this study contrast to previous observations of drug induced resistance in an avian H1N1 virus, which was maintained also without drug exposure in Mallards. Experimental observations on persistence of NAI resistance in avian IAVs resemble NAI resistance seen in human IAVs, in which resistant N2 subtypes do not circulate, while N1 subtypes with permissive mutations can circulate without drug pressure. We speculate that the phylogenetic group N1 NAs may easier compensate for NAI resistance than group N2 NAs, though further studies are needed to confirm such conclusions.

Quantification of potential exposure of gray partridge (Perdix perdix) to pesticide active substances in farmlands

Estimating exposure of wild birds to plant protection products is of key importance in the risk assessment process evaluating their harmful potential.In this paper, we propose an ecologically-relevant methodology to estimate potential exposure to active substances (ASs) of a farmland focal bird, the gray partridge Perdix perdix. It is based on bird habitat use of fields at the time of pesticide applications. It accounts for spatio-temporal heterogeneity at population and landscape scales.We identify and quantify the potential exposure to 179 ASs of 140 clutches during pre-laying, laying, and incubation phases, and of 75 coveys. The data come from a large scale field study combining radiotelemetry and a farmer survey. They were collected in 12 different representative sites.The proportion of clutches potentially exposed to a given chemical was ≥5% for 32 ASs; prothioconazole and epoxiconazole ranking first. 71% of clutches were potentially exposed to ≥1 AS and 67% to ≥2 ASs. Mixtures involved 2 to 22 ASs. They emerged from commercial formulations, tank mixtures, bird habitat use, and combinations. ASs were fungicides (53%), herbicides (25%), and insecticides (16%) used on a variety of crops in April–June, when ground-nesting birds are breeding. The European Food Safety Authority conclusions report a long-term first-tier toxicity-to-exposure ratio (TERlt) <5 for 11 out of 19 documented ASs, and higher-tier TERlt <5 for 5 out of 10 ASs. This suggests a potential risk for bird reproduction in farmlands.Globally 13% of coveys were potentially exposed to 18 ASs during the first month (1–4 coveys per AS).The use of our field data in future research and risk assessment is discussed.

Pig Sero-Survey and Farm Level Risk Factor Assessment for Japanese Encephalitis in Nepal

The objectives of this cross-sectional study was to determine the seropositivity status of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in pig and ascertain the farm level risk factors in Nepal. Serum samples were collected from 181 pigs in 91 farms of Rupandehi and Kapilbastu districts and tested for antibodies by IgG ELISA. Survey of farmers in each farm was carried out to determine the farm level risk factors. A total of 20 out of 181 (11%) serum samples tested positive for JEV antibodies. There was no statistically significant difference in seropositivity with age (p&gt;0.05), sex (p&gt;0.05) and breed (p&gt;0.05) of pigs. Farm level infection was significantly associated with closeness to rice fields (p&lt;0.05), closeness to standing water sources (p&lt;0.05), wild bird exposure (p&lt;0.05) and mosquito bite to pigs (p&lt;0.05). These factors need to be addressed while formulating prevention, control and management strategies of JEV in pig and hence in human. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v2i3.10639 Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol, Vol. 2(3): 311-314

Unusual increase of psittacosis in southern Sweden linked to wild bird exposure, January to April 2013

Free-living wild birds worldwide act as reservoir for Chlamydia psittaci, but the risk of transmission to humans through contact with wild birds has not been widely documented. From 12 January to April 9 2013, a total of 25 cases of psittacosis were detected in southern Sweden, about a threefold increase compared with the mean of the previous 10 years. A matched case-control study investigating both domestic and wild bird exposure showed that cases were more likely than controls to have cleaned wild bird feeders or been exposed to wild bird droppings in other ways (OR: 10.1; 95% CI: 2.1-47.9). We recommend precautionary measures such as wetting bird feeders before cleaning them, to reduce the risk of transmission of C. psittaci when in contact with bird droppings. Furthermore, C. psittaci should be considered for inclusion in laboratory diagnostic routines when analysing samples from patients with atypical pneumonia, since our findings suggest that psittacosis is underdiagnosed.

Serological and molecular investigation into the role of wild birds in the epidemiology of West Nile virus in Greece

BackgroundA West Nile virus (WNV) disease outbreak occurred in 2010 in northern Greece with a total of 262 laboratory-confirmed human cases and 35 deaths. A serological and molecular surveillance was conducted on samples of hunter-harvested wild birds prior to and during the outbreak.FindingsSerum and tissue samples from 295 resident and migratory wild birds, hunter-harvested during the 2009–2010 and 2010–2011 hunting seasons at the epicenter of the outbreak in northern Greece, were tested for the presence of WNV-specific antibodies by immunofluorescence assay and virus neutralization test. WNV neutralizing antibodies were detected in 53 avian samples. Fourteen positive sera were obtained from birds hunter-harvested up to 8 months prior to the human outbreak. Specific genetic determinants of virulence (His249Pro NS3 mutation, E-glycosylation motif) were recognized in a WNV lineage 2 strain isolated from a hunter-harvested Eurasian magpie and a nucleotide mismatch was revealed between this strain and a mosquito WNV strain isolated one month earlier in the same area.ConclusionsThis is the first report regarding exposure of wild birds to WNV prior to the 2010 outbreak, in Greece. Results provide evidence of the implication of wild birds in a local enzootic cycle that could allow maintenance and amplification of the virus before and during the outbreak. Findings of past exposure of migratory birds to WNV upon their arrival in Greece during autumn migration, suggest avian species with similar migration traits as candidates for the introduction of WNV into Greece. The possibility that an endemic circulation of WNV could have caused the outbreak, after an amplification cycle due to favorable conditions cannot be excluded.

A national study of US bird banders for evidence of avian influenza virus infections

Background Previously we have found that Midwestern US wildlife biologists, poultry farmers, veterinarians, and duck hunters have had evidence of avian influenza virus infections (AIVs). Objectives We sought to evaluate a national sample of US bird banders for previous evidence of AIV infection. Study design Controlled, cross-sectional serological survey. Results In 2009 and 2010 we enrolled 157 registered bird banders from 40 US states and compared their enrollment data and serological results with 78 adult age-group matched controls from Iowa. On average, the bird banders had 15 years of wild bird exposure, banded 20 days per year, worked chiefly in 1 of the 4 North American flyways, and banded 300 individual birds of 5 different species per season. While handling birds, only 15% of banders reported wearing gloves. Three bird banders and 1 control had evidence of previous infection (1 AIV each) with A/BWTE/Ohio/07/495762-6(H7N3), A/Ty/MN/38391-6/95(H9N2) or A/CK/NJ/7290-2/95(H11N3) by microneutralization assay. There was no evidence of previous infection with a representative sample of H4, H5, H6, H8, or H10 AIVs. Participants were followed for influenza-like-illness for a median of 7 months and 4 (3 bird banders) submitted self-collected eye, nasal, and throat influenza-like-illness swab specimens, 1 of which collected in November of 2009, yielded a pandemic H1N1 influenza A virus. Conclusion Despite reports of conjunctivitis and upper respiratory symptoms while bird banding, we found sparse evidence that US bird banders had infections with AIVs.