Wide Range Of Pressures Research Articles

Dynamics of a laser plume plasma in an atmosphere of the He, Xe, Ar, and N2 buffer gases during ablation of a SiMn target

Investigations of the dependence of the ferromagnetism of MnxSi1-x (x ∼ 0.5) films on the energy spectrum of target plume particles are topical for spintronics. The time-of-flight (TOF) method using a Langmuir probe has been used to study the dynamics of a laser plume during ablation of a SiMn target in vacuum and in an atmosphere of He, Xe, Ar, N2 buffer gases in a wide pressure range from 10−6 to 4∙10−1 mbar. The TOF curves of the probe signal have been obtained by ablation of the SiMn target by the second harmonic of the Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. A nonmonotonic dependence of the probe signal amplitude on the buffer gas pressure was established. A feature of the delay of the TOF curve signal from the moment of target ablation as a function of the N2 pressure in the chamber was revealed, which was explained by the resonant scattering of the Si + ion and the N2 nitrogen molecule. The most suitable gases for control of the ion velocity were selected based on the dynamics of the laser plume. The dependence of the electrical characteristics of MnxSi1-x (x ∼ 0.5) films on the pressure of helium and argon has been established.

Skin‐Integrated, Stretchable Electronic Skin for Human Motion Capturing and Pressure Mapping

AbstractFlexible and wearable electronics have been widely investigated for the extensive applications in real life. Piezoresistive based sensor is one of the common flexible electronics that could be utilized as electronic skin. By simply transducing the external pressure or stretching into resistor signal and integrated with flexible substrate and advanced functional sensing material, piezoresistive based sensors have been applied as the electronic skin. Here, a thin, skin‐integrated, and flexible electronic skin based on piezoresistive working mode is developed. Ultra‐thin polydimethylsiloxane substrate integrated with serpentine‐like Cu electrode could avoid mechanical failing of the device when it is stretched, bended, or twisted. By adopting the advanced function material, MXene, graphene and Ecoflex mixed composite, the electronic skin could sense not only a wide range of pressure from 20.8 to 132 kPa, but also stretching rate from 0% to 20%, allowing the potential application in human motion capturing. Furthermore, a 4 × 4 arrayed electronic skin is fabricated, and demonstrates the prospective application in pressure mapping.

Highly Sensitive Fiber Pressure Sensors over a Wide Pressure Range Enabled by Resistive-Capacitive Hybrid Response.

Soft capacitive pressure sensors with high performance are becoming increasingly in demand in the emerging flexible wearable field. While capacitive fiber pressure sensors have achieved high sensitivity, their sensitivity range is limited to low-pressure levels. As fiber sensors typically require preloading and fixation, this narrow range of high sensitivity poses a challenge for practical applications. To overcome this limitation, the study proposes resistive-capacitive hybrid response fiber pressure sensors (HFPSs) with three-layer core-sheath structures. The trigger and sensitivity enhancement mechanisms of the hybrid response are determined through model analysis and experimental verification. By adjustment of the sensitivity enhancement range of the hybrid response, the sensitivity attenuation of HFPSs is alleviated significantly. The obtained results demonstrate that HFPSs have excellent characteristics such as fast response, low hysteresis, wide response frequency, small signal drift, and good durability. The hybrid response enhances the practical sensitivity of HFPSs for various applications. With enhanced sensitivity, HFPSs can effectively monitor pulse signals at preloads ranging from 0 to 22.7 kPa. This wide range of preloads improves the fault tolerance of pulse monitoring and expands the potential application scenarios of fiber pressure sensors.

Cooperative Carbon Dioxide Capture in Diamine-Appended Magnesium-Olsalazine Frameworks.

Diamine-appended Mg2(dobpdc) (dobpdc4- = 4,4'-dioxidobiphenyl-3,3'-dicarboxylate) metal-organic frameworks have emerged as promising candidates for carbon capture owing to their exceptional CO2 selectivities, high separation capacities, and step-shaped adsorption profiles, which arise from a unique cooperative adsorption mechanism resulting in the formation of ammonium carbamate chains. Materials appended with primary,secondary-diamines featuring bulky substituents, in particular, exhibit excellent stabilities and CO2 adsorption properties. However, these frameworks display double-step adsorption behavior arising from steric repulsion between ammonium carbamates, which ultimately results in increased regeneration energies. Herein, we report frameworks of the type diamine-Mg2(olz) (olz4- = (E)-5,5'-(diazene-1,2-diyl)bis(2-oxidobenzoate)) that feature diverse diamines with bulky substituents and display desirable single-step CO2 adsorption across a wide range of pressures and temperatures. Analysis of CO2 adsorption data reveals that the basicity of the pore-dwelling amine─in addition to its steric bulk─is an important factor influencing adsorption step pressure; furthermore, the amine steric bulk is found to be inversely correlated with the degree of cooperativity in CO2 uptake. One material, ee-2-Mg2(olz) (ee-2 = N,N-diethylethylenediamine), adsorbs >90% of the CO2 from a simulated coal flue stream and exhibits exceptional thermal and oxidative stability over the course of extensive adsorption/desorption cycling, placing it among top-performing adsorbents to date for CO2 capture from a coal flue gas. Spectroscopic characterization and van der Waals-corrected density functional theory calculations indicate that diamine-Mg2(olz) materials capture CO2 via the formation of ammonium carbamate chains. These results point more broadly to the opportunity for fundamentally advancing materials in this class through judicious design.

Perovskite/Ruddlesden-Popper composite fuel electrode of strontium-praseodymium-manganese oxide for solid oxide cells: An alternative candidate

Ni migrates from cermet fuel electrodes in SOECs at high overpotentials, prompting interest in alternative electrode materials. Ni-free perovskites with mixed ionic and electronic conductivity are being developed as substitutes for Ni-YSZ- or Ni-CGO-cermet fuel electrodes. However, some perovskite electrodes exhibit poor electrocatalytic activity during steam electrolysis. This study focuses on the synthesis, phase evolution, and cation oxidation state of Sr0.5Pr0.5MnO3 (SPM) perovskite under oxidizing and reducing atmospheres. The electrochemical performance of the SPM electrode is investigated at different steam concentrations (3–50% H2O in H2). Rietveld refinement reveals a phase transformation from Pm-3m (221) to I4/mmm (139) in humidified 5% H2 in N2 gas at 800 °C. XPS measurements indicate that the I4/mmm (139) structure contains more oxygen vacancies, enhancing ionic conductivity and electrocatalytic activity. At 610 ◦C, the SPM electrode with the Pm-3m (221) space group exhibits a low polarization resistance of 0.173 Ω cm2 in 50% H2O in H2 gas. However, forming a Ruddlesden-Popper structure increases polarization resistance at higher temperatures due to a low-frequency reaction. Overall, the SPM electrode shows promising electrocatalytic activity across a wide range of oxygen partial pressure, making it a potential fuel electrode in SOECs.

A conserved pressure-driven mechanism for regulating cytosolic osmolarity

Controlling intracellular osmolarity is essential to all cellular life. Cells that live in hypo-osmotic environments, such as freshwater, must constantly battle water influx to avoid swelling until they burst. Many eukaryotic cells use contractile vacuoles to collect excess water from the cytosol and pump it out of the cell. Although contractile vacuoles are essential to many species, including important pathogens, the mechanisms that control their dynamics remain unclear. To identify the basic principles governing contractile vacuole function, we investigate here the molecular mechanisms of two species with distinct vacuolar morphologies from different eukaryotic lineages: the discoban Naegleria gruberi and the amoebozoan slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum. Using quantitative cell biology, we find that although these species respond differently to osmotic challenges, they both use vacuolar-type proton pumps for filling contractile vacuoles and actin for osmoregulation, but not to power water expulsion. We also use analytical modeling to show that cytoplasmic pressure is sufficient to drive water out of contractile vacuoles in these species, similar to findings from the alveolate Paramecium multimicronucleatum. These analyses show that cytoplasmic pressure is sufficient to drive contractile vacuole emptying for a wide range of cellular pressures and vacuolar geometries. Because vacuolar-type proton-pump-dependent contractile vacuole filling and pressure-dependent emptying have now been validated in three eukaryotic lineages that diverged well over a billion years ago, we propose that this represents an ancient eukaryotic mechanism of osmoregulation.

Synthetic methods to vary crystallite properties of TON zeolites and their consequences for Brønsted-acid catalyzed propene oligomerization

Brønsted acid zeolites catalyze light alkene oligomerization to higher molecular weight alkenes. Rates and selectivities of propene oligomerization in MFI zeolites are regulated by intrazeolite diffusional constraints imposed by heavier alkene products that become occluded within zeolitic micropores during reaction, and by active site properties that influence kinetic rate constants. Propene oligomerization rates and selectivity are also reported to vary with zeolite topology; however, evaluating the relative influences of kinetic and diffusional factors on oligomerization rate and selectivity and their dependence on zeolite framework topology is challenged by a dearth of synthesis methods to crystallize zeolite topologies with independently varied active site and crystallite properties. Herein, we use combinations of different structure directing agents to crystallize TON zeolites, which comprise medium-pore unidirectional straight channels, with varied crystallite sizes (0.9–5.4 μm) at similar H+-site density (∼0.3 H+/unit cell (u.c.)). Propene dimerization rates (per H+, 503 K) decrease systematically with increasing TON crystallite size over a wide range of propene pressures (16–607 kPa C3H6), reflecting the strong influence of intrazeolite diffusion limitations. The effective diffusivity of propene, estimated through the effectiveness factor formalism, systematically decreases (by ∼5×) with increasing propene pressure, indicating that the higher concentrations of heavier alkene products formed at higher propene pressures inhibit intrazeolite diffusion; however, this decrease is less severe compared to that for MFI samples of similar H+-site density. An analysis of product selectivity on zeolite topologies of independently varied pore size and dimensionality (TON, MFI, MOR) reveals that the smaller pore size of TON (∼5 Å diam.) leads to higher rate constants for propene dimerization, but also restricts the growth of larger oligomer products (e.g., ≥ C9), resulting in a lighter composition of occluded products that is also more weakly influenced by changes in propene pressure compared to those present in MFI (∼5–7 Å diam.). Together, these findings reveal the distinct roles of zeolite pore size and interconnectivity in governing kinetic factors and the composition of occluded products that regulate intrazeolite diffusion during propene oligomerization catalysis in medium-pore zeolites, and thereby rate and selectivity.

Hydrogenation behavior of a C14 Laves phase under ultra-high hydrogen pressure

For high pressure metal hydride (MH) compressor applications, it is important to have a thorough understanding of the hydrogenation properties of MH forming compounds under high pressure and temperature conditions, which are still little studied. Here, a Ti0.90V0.30Mn1.00Ni0.80 compound with MgZn2-type AB2 structure has been investigated by Sieverts’ method over a wide pressure and temperature range (up to 100 MPa and between −80 and 120 °C). This provided clear experimental evidence of the downward curvature of the van’t Hoff plot in the high-pressure region, which arises from the non-ideal behavior of hydrogen. In this paper, we also show that the high-sorption pressures can be well estimated by the van’t Hoff equation using low-pressure data. Ultimately, this study was combined with synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction (SR-XRD) performed in an effort to monitor the structural evolution of the compound in situ under ultra-high hydrogen pressure. We found that even under extreme conditions of 2 GPa and 200 °C, both the main AB2 phase and the secondary CsCl-type AB phase were fully hydrogenated and their structures were conserved. The existence of a critical temperature for the AB2-H2 system was demonstrated from the evolution of the SR-XRD patterns recorded for several temperatures during the desorption process.

Magnesium Oxide Powder Synthesis in Cathodic Arc Discharge Plasma in an Argon Environment at Atmospheric Pressure

Discharges with cathode spots can operate in a wide range of gas pressures. Erosion of the cathode material is an inherent property of such discharges. The erosion products are considered to be ionized atoms and electrically neutral microdroplets. In accordance with this concept, a plasma source based on a pulsed cathodic arc discharge in atmospheric-pressure argon with a current of up to 200 A, a pulse duration of 250 μs, and a pulse repetition rate of 10 Hz was implemented. Using this source, the synthesis of magnesium oxide powder was performed. The chemical composition of the erosion products was determined using the TEM/EDS method and the composition of the gas mixture in which the discharge system operated was evaluated by optical spectrometry. It was shown that particles of the synthesized powder have different morphological features, depending on the nature of the electrical erosion of the cathode material. Micron-sized particles are formed due to the removal of microdroplets from liquid–metal craters on the cathode surface at certain plasma pressures. Submicron particles are produced during the agglomeration of atoms originating from the plasma jets flowing out from cathode spots. These atoms are magnesium ions that are neutralized by collisions with gas particles. The advantages and disadvantages of this synthesis method are discussed in this paper. The reference methods for the powder synthesis of magnesium oxide are compared. The prospects of the studied method from the point of view of its application for obtaining ceramic materials are also evaluated.

Self-Acceleration and global pulsation of unstable laminar Hydrogen-Air flames

The self-acceleration and global pulsation of spherically expanding laminar hydrogen-air flames were studied in a spherical explosion vessel, over a wide range of equivalence ratios (0.4–2.0), initial temperatures (300–400 K), and initial pressures (0.1–0.7 MPa). Comprehensive quantitative data on the self-acceleration propagation of unstable laminar hydrogen-air flames were obtained. The results show that the self-similarity appears after the onset of instability, and the previous assertion of acceleration exponent α = 1.5 is not valid for hydrogen-air flames. The derived values of α for such flames vary from 1.125 and 1.39 in the present work. For the self-accelerating flame, the temporal evolution of the flame radius is described by ru=Atα, and temporal flame propagation speed is described by Sn=Aαtα-1. A modified theoretical expression of the constant A is proposed and validated against the present experimentally derived results. The acceleration phase after flame instability presents a global pulsating acceleration pattern. The frequency of global pulsation rises as the pressure or temperature of the flame increases. A pulsing flame speed equation can be used to reliably estimate flame speed after the onset of cellular instability. Self-acceleration observed in small laboratory explosions can serve as a predictive indicator for flame behaviour on a larger atmospheric scale.

High-performance tribo-components through combination of materials on the macroscale

The tribological performance of four different tribocomposite assemblies was comparatively investigated by sliding against a steel ring on a block-on-ring tribometer in a wide range of surface pressure (p) and sliding velocity (v), and the experimental results were described by a model. The results show that the friction coefficient in the stationary friction phase and the specific wear rate of the composite assemblies tend to follow the superior partner. Surprisingly, it is also found that the pv-load limit can be shifted to the higher pv-limit of the better partner. The results of the present work clearly show that the macroscopic combination of tribocomposites can be an excellent approach for the fabrication of tribological components, e.g. bearings, with long lifetime, high energy and eco-efficiency.

Carbon Nanofibers Synthesized at Different Pressures for Detection of NO2 at Room Temperature

In this paper, room-temperature chemiresistive gas sensors for NO2 detection based on CVD-grown carbon nanofibers (CNFs) were investigated. Transmission electron microscopy, low-temperature nitrogen adsorption, and X-ray diffraction were used to investigate the carbon nanomaterials. CNFs were synthesized in a wide range of pressure (1–5 bar) by COx-free decomposition of methane over the Ni/Al2O3 catalyst. It was found that the increase in pressure during the synthesis of CNFs induced the later deactivation of the catalyst, and the yield of CNFs decreased when increasing pressure. Sensing properties were determined in a dynamic flow-through installation at NO2 concentrations ranging from 1 to 400 ppm. Ammonia detection was tested for comparison in a range of 100–500 ppm. The obtained sensors based on CNFs synthesized at 1 bar showed high responses of 1.7%, 5.0%, and 10.0% to 1 ppm, 5 ppm, and 10 ppm NO2 at 25 ± 2 °C, respectively. It was shown that the obtained non-modified carbon nanomaterials can be used successfully used for room temperature detection of nitrogen dioxide. It was found that the increase in relative humidity (RH) of air induced growth of response, and this effect was facilitated after reaching RH ~35% for CNFs synthesized at elevated pressures.

Cubic silicon carbide under tensile pressure: Spinodal instability

Silicon carbide is a hard, semiconducting material presenting many polytypes, whose behavior under extreme conditions of pressure and temperature has attracted large interest. Here we study the mechanical properties of 3C-SiC over a wide range of pressures (compressive and tensile) by means of molecular dynamics simulations, using an effective tight-binding Hamiltonian to describe the interatomic interactions. The accuracy of this procedure has been checked by comparing results at T=0 with those derived from ab-initio density-functional-theory calculations. This has allowed us to determine the metastability limits of this material and in particular the spinodal point (where the bulk modulus vanishes) as a function of temperature. At T=300 K, the spinodal instability appears for a lattice parameter about 20% larger than that corresponding to ambient pressure. At this temperature, we find a spinodal pressure Ps=−43GPa, which becomes less negative as temperature is raised (Ps=−37.9GPa at 1500 K). These results pave the way for a deeper understanding of the behavior of crystalline semiconductors in a poorly known region of their phase diagrams.

Aeroelastic wind tunnel investigations on rectangular-planed air-supported membrane structures

This study implements aeroelastic wind tunnel experiments on rectangular-planed air-supported membrane structures. With the goal of identifying possible wind response patterns, experiments are conducted with a wide range of wind velocities, internal pressures, and membrane tensile stiffness, including cases close to similarity requirements for simulating prototypes. Wind pressure measurements on the rigid model are performed to serve as a reference, and during subsequent aeroelastic wind tunnel tests, time-averaged and fluctuating wind responses of air-supported membrane structures are observed to significantly increase with lower internal pressures, higher wind speeds, more incoming turbulence, and less membrane tensile stiffness. Two distinct patterns of wind response, buffeting, and aeroelastic instability, are observed within the aeroelastic wind tunnel experiments. These two patterns exhibit significant differences in terms of fluid–structure interaction mechanisms and statistics of structural wind responses. This research emphasizes the influences of membrane elasticity and incoming turbulence on variations of structural wind response patterns. Aeroelastic instability is observed on models with extreme flexibility and relatively lower incoming turbulence, while the buffeting pattern is observed with other configurations, including cases that approach the similarity requirements for simulating air-supported membrane structures in practice.

A linear and large-range pressure sensor based on hierarchical structural SnO2@carbon nanotubes/polyurethane sponge

Flexible pressure sensors arouse an extensive interest in health monitoring, human-computer interaction, and wearable electronic devices. However, the preparation of pressure sensors with high sensitivity, high linearity, and wide working range continues to be challenging. In this study, a SnO2@carbon nanotubes/polyurethane (SnO2@CNT/PU) sponge pressure sensor was presented with high sensitivity in a wide linear pressure range. SnO2 was attached to CNT/PU sponge, which allowed the pressure sensor to obtain low initial current, thus increasing the sensitivity of the pressure sensor. The applied compressive strain was linearly related to the resistance since the nodes of CNT/PU sponge porous skeleton change synchronously during contact. SnO2@CNT/PU sponge pressure sensor shows a wide pressure range (3 Pa–30 kPa), while maintaining high sensitivity (53.4 kPa−1), and excellent linearity (R2 = 0.996). Furthermore, the sensor exhibited stable cycle performance (1500 cycles), fast response time (23 ms), as well as low detection limit (3 Pa). More importantly, the pressure sensor is capable of accurately detecting the human body's physiological signals, and shows promising application for health monitoring.

Forevacuum plasma-cathode electron source for generation of a ribbon beam over a wide pressure range.

We describe the results of our investigations of the generation of a ribbon electron beam (10 × 220mm2) by a two-stage discharge system based on a hollow-cathode glow discharge plasma. The source design enables operation in the pressure range 2 × 10-2 to 10Pa. At a beam accelerating voltage of 8kV, the beam current is 450 mA at a pressure of 2 × 10-2Pa and 150 mA at a pressure of 10Pa. To achieve a uniform current density distribution of the beam over its cross-sectional area, a special design of emission electrode was employed. This enabled us to reduce non-uniformities of the beam current density distribution to a level of 10%.

Coaxial ion source: Pressure dependence of gas flow and field ion emission

We investigated the pressure dependence of the gas flow and the field ion intensity of a coaxial ion source operating at room temperature over a wide pressure range, testing various gases and ionization voltages. Flow conductance measurements taking into account the different gases’ viscosity and molecular mass consistently exhibit a generic pattern. Three different flow regimes appear with increasing upstream pressure. Since the coaxial ion source supplies the gas locally, very near the apex of the tip where ionization occurs, large ionization currents can be obtained without degrading the propagation conditions of the beam. Compared with field ionization in a partial pressure chamber, using the coaxial ion source increases the ion current a hundredfold for the same residual low pressure. We also show that the gas flow regime does not impact the ionization yield. Although a fuller characterization remains to be performed, brightness reaches 3×1011 A/m2/sr at 12 kV extracting voltage.

Strain hardening induced by crystal plasticity: A new mechanism for brittle failure in garnets

Garnet is a high-strength mineral stable across a wide range of pressure and temperature conditions and preserves structures that can consequently be used to understand the evolution of stress within the lower crust. Yet, the deformation mechanisms in the brittle-ductile regime of garnet remain ambiguous. Here, we study garnet porphyroclasts from an eclogite facies mylonite (central Australia) to investigate the mechanisms by which garnet is deformed under relatively dry, lower crustal conditions. Electron backscatter diffraction analysis reveals bands of small, relatively strain-free garnet with scattered orientations, outlined by polygonal to lobate high-angle grain boundaries separating the garnet porphyroclasts. Atom probe tomography of a high-angle grain boundary shows Fe enrichment in the form of planar and equally spaced arrays of nanoclusters. Our data demonstrate Fe segregation along grain boundaries of garnet, resulting in the nucleation of Fe-rich nanoclusters that act as barriers for migrating dislocations which could lead to strain-hardening and eventually facilitate mechanical failure.

Cross-Scale Seepage Characteristics of Fractured Horizontal Wells in Tight Gas Reservoirs.

Tight gas reservoirs are rich in microscale pores and fractures. The effect of microscale gas seepage in tight sandstone matrix on gas well productivity cannot be ignored. At present, the effect of microscale gas flow on the well testing model of fractured horizontal wells has not been systematically studied. In this paper, first, the coupling influence mechanism of "multicomponent gas effect-fracture geometry characteristics" is expounded, second, a seepage model coupling the flow in the fracture and the flow in the gas reservoir is established on the fracture wall surface, and third, an unsteady pressure analysis model for fractured horizontal wells in tight gas reservoirs is established. Results show that (a) when the microscale fracture is at a quite small level, the Knudsen diffusion plays a dominant role at a wide range of pressures; (b) the mass transfer rate of multicomponent shale gas through macrofractures increases with increasing CO2 fraction; (c) the unsteady flow process is divided into six stages in turn: microscale diffusion stage, linear flow stage in fractures, linear flow stage between fractures, early radial flow stage in gas reservoirs, linear flow stage in gas reservoirs, and late radial flow stage in gas reservoirs; and (d) with an increase of dimensionless bottom-hole storage coefficient, the second and third stages of flow are gradually covered up.

Experimental Modeling of Decarbonation Reactions, Resulting in the Formation of CO2 Fluid and Garnets of Model Carbonated Eclogites under Lithospheric Mantle P,T-Parameters

First experimental modeling of decarbonation reactions resulting in the formation of CO2-fluid and Mg, Fe, Ca, and Mn garnets, with composition corresponding to the garnets of carbonated eclogites of types I and II (ECI and ECII), was carried out at a wide range of lithospheric mantle pressures and temperatures. Experimental studies were performed on a multi-anvil high-pressure apparatus of a “split sphere” type (BARS), in (Mg, Fe, Ca, Mn)CO3-Al2O3-SiO2 systems (with compositional variations according to those in ECI and ECII), in the pressure interval of 3.0–7.5 GPa and temperatures of 1050–1450 °C (t = 10–60 h). A specially designed high-pressure cell with a hematite buffering container—preventing the diffusion of hydrogen into the platinum capsule—was used, in order to control the fluid composition. Using the mass spectrometry method, it was proven that in all experiments, the fluid composition was pure CO2. The resulting ECI garnet compositions were Prp48Alm35Grs15Sps02–Prp44Alm40Grs14Sps02, and compositions of the ECII garnet were Prp57Alm34Grs08Sps01–Prp68Alm23Grs08Sps01. We established that the composition of the synthesized garnets corresponds strongly to natural garnets of carbonated eclogites of types I and II, as well as to garnets from xenoliths of diamondiferous eclogites from the Robert Victor kimberlite pipe; according to the Raman characteristics, the best match was found with garnets from inclusions in diamonds of eclogitic paragenesis. In this study, we demonstrated that the lower temperature boundary of the stability of natural garnets from carbonated eclogites in the presence of a CO2 fluid is 1000 (±20) °C at depths of ~90 km, 1150–1250 (±20) °C at 190 km, and 1400 (±20) °C at depths of about 225 km. The results make a significant contribution to the reconstruction of the fluid regime and processes of CO2/carbonate-related mantle metasomatism in the lithospheric mantle.