WHO Guideline Limits Research Articles

Drinking water quality and handling practices among women in rural households of Oshimili North Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria

Diarrheal diseases associated with inadequate supply of potable water are the leading causes of mortality among children under five years in developing countries. In Nigeria, women are the water managers in most households. However, there is dearth of information on the effect of women’s handling practices on drinking water quality. Therefore, this study was aimed at assessing the drinking water quality and handling practices among women in selected rural households in Oshimili North Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. Paired drinking water samples from available sources and Household Storage Containers (HSC) were assessed for physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters using standard methods. The data obtained were compared with the WHO guideline limits. Water samples with 0, 1-10, 11-50 and > 50 E. coli/100 mL were graded as A, B, C, and D corresponding to excellent, acceptable, unacceptable, and grossly polluted quality, respectively. Pre-tested semi-structured interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. A 30-point scale was used to assess water handling practices. Handling practice scores greater or equal to mean handling practice score were grouped into good and those less than that were grouped into bad handling practices. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and One-way ANOVA at α = 0.05. The results showed physico-chemical parameters for both sources and households within WHO guideline limits. The mean total coliform counts for all sources and household containers exceeded permissible limits. E. coli was not detected in harvested rain water while counts for borehole was 10.2 ±2.2 (A) and for stream sources was 44.6±33.3 EC/100 mL (B); drinking water stored in HSC had 36.8±32.3 (A) EC/100 mL, borehole had 62.31±33.2 (C) and stream had 30.00±33.2 (B). Mean handling practice score was 19.4+6.6. Majority (60.0%) practiced some water handling technique. Drinking water from assessed sources was of poor microbial quality and it significantly deteriorated when stored in household storage containers. Therefore, there is a need to improve the microbial quality of drinking water at sources and household level through the supply of simple, acceptable, low-cost treatment methods and hygiene education.

Physico-chemical quality of drinking water and human health: a study of salt range Pakistan

The Salt Range a hill system located in the Punjab province of Pakistan is affected by heavy salinity and condition is deteriorating overtime with the use of brackish underground water. Common health problems are hypertension, viral hepatitis due to virus A and E, many types of urinary problems and gastrointestinal tract problems like diarrhea and other abdominal ailments. Present study was designed to evaluate the physico-chemical parameters of drinking water of the Salt Range by taking water samples from different locations of Pind Dadan Khan and Khewra. Each parameter was compared with the standard desirable limit prescribed by WHO. Eight percent water samples showed pH level above the permissible limit while EC and TDS values also crossed the permissible guideline values in 48 and 24 percent samples respectively. The results revealed that 16% sulfates 10% iron content and 30% chlorides were higher than the WHO standards. In 54 percent samples chromium values also crossed the WHO guideline limit. The higher values of certain parameters (when compared with acceptable standard limits for drinking purposes) point towards the salt water intrusion and pollution level in drinking water. Suitable suggestions were made to improve the water quality of salt range.

Metal and metalloid concentrations in soil, surface water, and vegetables and the potential ecological and human health risks in the northeastern area of Hanoi, Vietnam.

Heavy metal and metalloid contamination and related risks for the environment and human health are matters of increasing concern. This study assessed metal and metalloid concentrations in soil, surface water, and locally grown vegetable to assess exposure and related risks for the environment and human health in the northeastern rural area of Hanoi. Concentrations of metals and metalloids in soils exceeded regulatory thresholds in some locations (e.g., Me Linh and Gia Lam districts). The carcinogenic elements As and Cr were identified as a major concern with concentrations up to 693μgg-1 and 147μgg-1, respectively. Industrial point sources or groundwater irrigation practices in the intensive organic farming areas were identified as potential factors contributing to the accumulation of carcinogenic metals and metalloids in topsoil layers. Metal and metalloid concentrations detected in water and vegetables were below the regulatory threshold levels (WHO guideline and maximum allowable limits). While contamination was not observed at a large geographical scale, local soil contamination in specific areas of agricultural importance could pose high ecological and human health-related risks with unclear long-term impacts. The highly carcinogenic soil contamination detected in this study may be a factor adding to the increased cancer incidence rate in Hanoi area, as the total carcinogenic risk calculated for Hanoi area exceeds the cancer likelihood threshold by a factor of 25. Further research is needed to examine potential links, and the involvement of both stakeholders and policy makers is needed to adequately evaluate the risks for Hanoi area and coordinate future remediation plans if risks are justified.

Assessment of contamination and health risk of heavy metals in selected water bodies around gold mining areas in Ghana.

Heavy metal contamination of selected rivers in Ghana was studied as part of a bigger project aimed at setting background standard for heavy metals in the Ghanaian environment. Water samples were collected from major mining and eight pristine areas. The samples were acid digested with aqua-regia and analyzed with ICP-MS for As, Cd, Hg, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Cr, Al, V, Co, Ni, and Pb. The average concentrations (mg/L) from the pristine sites ranged from 0.002 ± 0.00(As) to 0.929 ± 0.06 (Fe) and 0.002 ± 0.00 (Pb) to 20.355 ± 5.60 (Fe) from the mining sites. With the exception of Al, Fe, and Mn, the metals level were found to be within the WHO and USEPA guideline limits. Hazard quotients (HQ) for ingestion and dermal contact for pristine and mining samples ranged from 3.00E-04 (Cu) to 0.84 (Cr) and 2.40E-06 (Cu) to 7.44 (As), respectively. The carcinogenic risk (CR) for ingestion and dermal contact ranged from 5.03E-06 to 1.71E-07 (Cr) and 4.22E-08 to 1.44E-09 (Cr), respectively. Arsenic showed a CR value higher than the acceptable limit (1.8E-02) from the mining sites which poses carcinogenic health threat. Multicriteria ranking suggests Birim river (EAM) as the most contaminated. The pattern recognition and multicriteria approach in characterizing the heavy metal contamination (for the first time in the case of Ghana) from the various sites will provide fresh insights into the risk assessment of heavy metals in contaminated surface waters.

Determination of Heavy Metals in Fish and Water of White Nile During Watery Diarrhea Outbreak from June to July, 2017, Gezira Aba – Sudan

The objective of this study was to determine the concentrations of some heavy metal in fish (Clarias gariepinus) and water samples collected from White Nile at Gezira Aba. Heavy metals in fish and water samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) in accordance to standard analytical method. Data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis (ANOVA) to find out the significant difference of heavy metals in water body throughout the sampling period and in each organ of the sampled fish. The obtained results showed the average values Fe, Pb, Co, Cd in water samples were higher than WHO guide line limit for fresh water. The analysis of heavy metal in fish organs indicated that among eight heavy metals tested, Fe showed the highest concentration followed by Fe, Pb, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Cd and Cr. Results also showed that accumulation of heavy metals differed in the organs. Gill recorded high level of heavy metals followed by kidney, while liver contain lower level. It was concluded that levels of heavy metal in fish organs showed high concentration of detected heavy metals, while water samples give low heavy metals concentration. This implies that, the fish sample can be used to monitor heavy metals pollution level in the White Nile River. More safe and economic methods for elimination of heavy metals from contaminated waters are needed and continuous assessment of the level of pollution of Nile water and fish with heavy metals is also necessary.

Pilot-scale treatment of 1,4-dioxane contaminated waters using 185 nm radiation: Experimental and CFD modeling

This work investigates the feasibility of a 185 nm advanced oxidation process (AOP) for the degradation of 1,4-dioxane from contaminated waters using a pilot-scale system operating at 6–30 L/min. Using synthetic and natural water samples with less than 20L/min, the 185 nm pilot system was able to reduce 1,4-dioxane concentration from 100 ppb to below the WHO guideline limit (i.e., 50 ppb) with no need for an exogenous chemical oxidant/catalyst. The electrical energy-per-order (EEO) analysis of the system demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of the process for 1,4-dioxane removal with EEO values close to 0.8 kWh/m3/order. Further, 1,4-dioxane degradation rate decreased by 3%-13%, depending on the flow rate, when the raw water was spiked by a second micropollutant, atrazine, which competes for hydroxyl radicals. To provide an in-depth understanding of 1,4-dioxane removal, a mechanistic computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was developed and validated experimentally. Sensitivity analysis of the operational variables underlined the significance of flow characteristics within the photoreactors as well as the natural organic matter (NOM) concentration of the water as the key factors controlling the degradation of 1,4-dioxane. The proposed model predicted the impact of the flow rates, OH scavenging of atrazine and water matrix (NOM and alkalinity) on 1,4-dioxane degradation with less than 2% average absolute deviation, demonstrating its potential as a viable tool for the design, optimization, and scale-up of 185 nm AOP systems.

Cyanobacteria and microcystin contamination in untreated and treated drinking water in Ghana

<p>Although cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins represent a worldwide-occurring phenomenon, there are large differences among different countries in cyanotoxin-related human health risk assessment, management practices and policies. While national standards, guideline values and detailed regulatory frameworks for effective management of cyanotoxin risks have been implemented in many industrialized countries, the extent of cyanobacteria occurrence and cyanotoxin contamination in certain geographical regions is under-reported and not very well understood. Such regions include major parts of tropical West and Central Africa, a region constisting of more than 25 countries occupying an area of 12 million km<sup>2</sup>, with a total population of 500 milion people. Only few studies focusing on cyanotoxin occurrence in this region have been published so far, and reports dealing specifically with cyanotoxin contamination in drinking water are extremely scarce. In this study, we report seasonal data on cyanobacteria and microcystin (MC) contamination in drinking water reservoirs and adjacent treatment plants located in Ghana, West Africa. During January-June 2005, concentrations of MCs were monitored in four treatment plants supplying drinking water to major metropolitan areas in Ghana: the treatment plants Barekese and Owabi, which serve Kumasi Metropolitan Area, and the plants Kpong and Weija, providing water for Accra-Tema Metropolitan Area. HPLC analyses showed that 65% samples of raw water at the intake of the treatment plants contained intracellular MCs (maximal detected concentration was 8.73 µg L<sup>-1</sup>), whereas dissolved toxins were detected in 33% of the samples. Significant reduction of cyanobacterial cell counts and MC concentrations was achieved during the entire monitoring period by the applied conventional water treatment methods (alum flocculation, sedimentation, rapid sand filtration and chlorination), and MC concentration in the final treated water never exceeded 1 µg L<sup>-1</sup> (WHO guideline limit for MCs in drinking water). However, cyanobacterial cells (93-3,055 cell mL<sup>-1</sup>) were frequently found in the final treated water and intracellular MCs were detected in 17% of the samples (maximal concentration 0.61 µg L<sup>-1</sup>), while dissolved MCs were present in 14% of the final treated water samples (maximal concentration 0.81 µg L<sup>-1</sup>). It indicates a borderline efficiency of the water treatment, thus MC concentrations in drinking water might exceed the WHO guideline limit if the treatment efficiency gets compromised. In addition, MC concentrations found in the raw water intake might represent significant human health risks for people living in areas with only a limited access to the treated or underground drinking water.</p>

Chemical characteristics and source apportionment of PM2.5 in Lanzhou, China

Daily PM2.5 samples were collected during winter 2012 and summer 2013 at an urban site in Lanzhou and were analyzed for chemical compounds including water soluble inorganic ions (WSIN), trace elements, water soluble organic carbon (WSOC), carbonaceous species (OC/EC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and humic-like substances (HULIS). The seasonal-average reconstructed PM2.5 mass was 120.5μgm−3 in winter and 34.1μgm−3 in summer. The top three groups of species in PM2.5 were OC (35.4±13.9μgm−3), WSIN (34.89±14.21μgm−3), and EC (13.80±5.41μgm−3) in winter and WSIN (11.25±3.25μgm−3), OC (9.74±3.30μgm−3), and EC (4.44±2.00μgm−3) in summer. EC exceeded SO42− on most of the days. Several anthropogenic produced primary pollutants such as PAHs, Cl−, Pb, Cd and OCpri were 4–22 times higher in winter than summer. Carcinogenic substances such as Arsenic, BaP, Pb, and Cd in PM2.5 exceeded the WHO guideline limits by 274%, 153%, 23% and 7%, respectively. Positive Matric Factorization analysis identified seven source factors including steel industry, secondary aerosols, coal combustion, power plants, vehicle emissions, crustal dust, and smelting industry, which contributed 7.1%, 33.0%, 28.7%, 3.12%, 8.8%, 13.3%, and 6.0%, respectively, to PM2.5 in winter, and 6.7%, 14.8%, 3.1%, 3.4%, 25.2%, 11.6% and 35.2% in summer. Smelting industry and steel industry were identified for the first time as sources of PM2.5 in this city, and power plant was distinguished from industrial boiler and residential coal burning.

The effects of storage on the bacteriological quality of sachet water produced, sold and consumed within Owerri Metropolis, Imo State, Nigeria

The sale and consumption of sachet water is common in Owerri metropolis because the consumers believed it was safer than tap or borehole water.The aim of this study was to assess the effects of storage on the bacteriological quality of sachet water produced, sold and consumed within Owerri metropolis, Imo State, Nigeria. Fifteen sachet water brands were investigated for a period of four months. They were collected within 24 hours of production and stored at ambient temperature for four months. Samples were taken on monthly basis for enumeration of total aerobic heterotrophic bacteria and indicator organisms using APHA and WHO analytical methods. Bacteriological analysis showed that Clets brand had the highest Total heterotrophic bacterial count of 5.7X101cfu/ml, followed by Elevated and Crystal while Ricano had the least count of 3.2x101cfu/ml. Total heterotrophic bacteria and total coliform count decreased gradually in all brands throughout this period. Escherichia coli was isolated in three brands. Results from the research indicates that 60% of the brands analyzed met the WHO guideline limit for drinking when stored at ambient temperature within eight weeks period. However, storage beyond this period led to diminished potability of sachet water

English

The ever growing saline lake Beseka is located at the northern end of Main Ethiopia Rift; MER. The levels of some selected heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Cd, Fe, As and Mn) were determined in water sample collected from 5 sites of the ever growing Lake Beseka by systematic random sampling methods and analyzed spectrophotometrically for its suitability for drinking, irrigation and other domestic purpose. The results of the heavy metals concentration revealed the following: Pb (0.434-0.916 mg/L), Cd (0.031-0.103 mg/L), As (0.043-0.067 mg/L), Fe (0.163-0.247 mg/L) Cr (BDL) and Mn (0.061-0.092 mg/L). The result obtained revealed that the heavy metals show variation among sampling points. Pb, Cd, As and Fe recorded concentrations above the WHO guideline limits of 0.02, 0.003, 0.01 and 0.04 mg/L, respectively but they are below the ANZECC and ARMCANZ standard guide line limit for irrigation A and Cr were below their respective detection limits. The main causes of deterioration of water quality are disposal of effluent from municipal of MER, agrochemical runoff and effluent discharged from industries without treatment. The results suggest that the use of such waters for drinking and domestic purposes pose a serious threat to the health of the users and calls for the intervention of government agencies. Key words: Heavy metal, atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), main Ethiopia rift (MER), determination, analysis.

Appraisal of Lead and Cadmium in the Caprines of Goats (<i>Capra aeggarus hircus</i>) Slaughtered in Ibadan, Nigeria

A study was carried out on the appraisal of lead and cadmium in the caprines of goats in Ibadan, Nigeria between June and September 2016. Caprines from six goats were collected from Bodija market in Ibadan. A total of 36 samples (Liver, lungs, oesophagus, intestines, heart and muscle) were used in the study. The samples were ashed in a furnace at a temperature of 400°C for two hours for each batch and stored in sample bottles prior to acid digestion. The heavy metals lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) were then analyzed using Buck Scientific Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). Each analysis was done in triplicates while standard and blank samples were analyzed for all the 36 samples. The results showed that the highest Cd concentration was found in the liver (0.06ppm) in sample 5 and in the heart of sample 6 (0.06ppm) which exceeded the WHO guideline limit of 0.05ppm. The highest concentration of Pb was found in the heart of sample 1 (0.63ppm), the liver of sample 2 (0.42ppm), the lungs of sample 3 (0.83ppm) and the liver of sample 4 (0.33ppm) all of which exceeded the WHO set limit of 0.01ppm. The study showed that the consumption of caprines and meat (muscle) from goats slaughtered in in Ibadan is relatively safe. It is therefore recommended that there should be regular biomonitoring of heavy metals in the caprines and meat from livestock slaughtered in Ibadan, Nigeria for public health safety.

Assessing the Impact of an Operating Tailings Storage Facility on Catchment Surface and Groundwater Quality in the Ellembele District of the Western Region of Ghana

<p>The study assessed the impact of an operating Tailings Storage Facility (TSF) of Adamus Resources Limited (Nzema Gold Mine) in the Ellembele District of the Western of Ghana on catchment surface and groundwater quality. Water samples were collected between June and December 2014 from seventeen (17) sampling sites including the TSF decant water (TSF-DW), three (3) streams, a water storage dam, a pond and eleven (11) groundwater monitoring boreholes within 500 m radius of the mine’s Tailings Storage Facility. Samples were analyzed for pH, true colour, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved metals (arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury) and cyanide (weak acid dissociable cyanide (WAD), free cyanide and total cyanide) using standard procedures. The TSF-DW reported elevated arsenic, free cyanide and TSS concentrations above GHEPA guideline for effluent discharge. Elevated TSS and arsenic concentrations above GHEPA limits were reported in PWSD which is a pond uphill of the TSF and a receptor to effluents from illegal mining sites on the mine’s concession. All other parameters recorded in surface and groundwater bodies studied were within WHO guideline limit for potable water. Results of the study suggest that the quality of surface and groundwater around the TSF has not been adversely affected even though the TSF is contaminated. Study findings suggest that well-engineered tailings dam ofARLwith its effective liner and management systems may have provided a safe structure and prevented contamination of water resources within its catchment.</p>

Occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria and microcystin toxin in domestic water storage reservoirs, Egypt

Research Article| April 13 2016 Occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria and microcystin toxin in domestic water storage reservoirs, Egypt Zakaria A. Mohamed; Zakaria A. Mohamed 1Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt E-mail: mzakaria_99@yahoo.com Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Mohamed Ali Deyab; Mohamed Ali Deyab 2Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Damietta, Egypt Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Mohamed I. Abou-Dobara; Mohamed I. Abou-Dobara 2Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Damietta, Egypt Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Wesam M. El-Raghi Wesam M. El-Raghi 2Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Damietta, Egypt Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua (2016) 65 (5): 431–440. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2016.115 Article history Received: November 28 2015 Accepted: March 12 2016 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Cite Icon Cite Permissions Search Site Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAll JournalsThis Journal Search Advanced Search Citation Zakaria A. Mohamed, Mohamed Ali Deyab, Mohamed I. Abou-Dobara, Wesam M. El-Raghi; Occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria and microcystin toxin in domestic water storage reservoirs, Egypt. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua 1 August 2016; 65 (5): 431–440. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2016.115 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex Residents in many developing countries store treated drinking water in tanks or reservoirs because of intermittent and infrequent water supplies. Many studies have focused on bacterial contamination of domestic reservoir waters, the cyanobacterial and algal contamination is largely unexplored. Therefore, the present study investigates toxic cyanobacteria and their microcystin (MC) toxins in some domestic water storage reservoirs in Egypt as an example for developing countries. Three phytoplankton groups including cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms were found in domestic reservoirs. Among these species, the toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa had the highest cell density during warm months (4.2–5.92 cells × 106 L–1). This cell density increased along the time, indicating that environmental conditions in these reservoirs promoted the proliferation of this species. Intra- and extracellular MCs were also detected in reservoir waters at concentrations of 3.5–40 and 1–7.6 μg L–1, respectively, exceeding the WHO guideline limit of 1 μg L–1 for these toxins in drinking water. Heterotrophic bacteria were found in association with cyanobacteria in reservoir waters. The study suggests that treated-water storage reservoirs should be monitored for the presence of toxic cyanobacteria to protect the public from exposure to their potent toxins. cyanobacteria, domestic reservoirs, drinking water, hygienic risk, microcystins © IWA Publishing 2016 You do not currently have access to this content.

Noise from Portable Electric Power Generators in an Institutional Setting: A Neglected Risk Factor

An ideal educational setting should be serene and conducive for both learning and working. However, due to the erratic power supply in Nigeria coupled with increase in number of commercial outfits, there has been an upsurge in the proliferation of portable generators at institutional settings. Studies conducted on noise from portable generators and its effects on human health in institutional environment are sparse. Noise levels from exposure to portable generators and its perceived attendant effects was assessed in this study. Oladele Ajose building (OAB) was purposively selected for this pilot study based on the frequency of generator use and level of commercial activities. A semi structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from staff and students. Noise levels in decibels (dB) was measured in six selected location for eight weeks in the indoor and outdoor environment of the building, using a calibrated AEMC sound meter. Results were compared with WHO guideline limits. Mean noise level in the indoor and outdoor environment was 60.26±8.45dB and 58.15±4.53dB respectively. Reported health problems in the last six months prior the study include ear pains (68%), headache (46%), tiredness (60%) and tinnitus (34%). Occupants of OAB are exposed to noise from electric generator at levels exceeding WHO limit. There is a need to find an alternative way to power generation in institutional settings because of the threat noise from generators poses to the serene and conducive learning environment.

Influence of small-scale gold mining and toxic element concentrations in Bonsa river, Ghana: a potential risk to water quality and public health

A preliminary assessment of toxic element pollution caused by artisanal and small-scale gold mining in the Bonsa river of Ghana as well as the influence of TOC and SO4 2− concentration on these traces in the sediment has been determined. With the exception of mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), and arsenic (As), the concentration of aluminum (Al) in filtered river water exceeded the WHO guideline limit of 0.1 mg L−1 in drinking water. Analyses of toxic element in sediment using Canadian Sediment Quality Criteria, contamination factor, geoaccumulation index, and enrichment factor indicate that river sediment is severely contaminated with Hg confirming the negative impact of the amalgamation technique in gold beneficiation in Ghana. The level of Hg in the surface water exceeded reported values from some rivers in Africa, Asia, and South America. The ranking order of the mean element concentration in both matrices followed the conservative order of traces found in the Earth crust except copper, which was below the detection limit of 0.01 mg kg−1. A Pearson correlation matrix of the toxic element and geology of the river bedrock indicates that the Hg contamination is of anthropogenic origin whilst As, Mn, and Al are the result of natural enrichment. The partitioning of elements in the sediment compartments is independent of TOC and SO4 2− concentration. Health-risk assessment based on average daily dose, hazard quotient, and cancer risk indicates that Hg is a health risk to the human population. In conclusion, the study has shown that there is a likely anthropic affection of the river and that this situation has worsened since earlier studies. In order to sustain aquatic life and to prevent future human health hazard, an immediate mercury remediation in the river is recommended.

Harvested rainwater: quality, adequacy, and proximity in Ghanaian rural communities

This article presents a study that aimed to assess the accessibility, use, and quality of harvested rainwater in three rural communities in Ghana where the government of Ghana and local and international development organisations have sponsored domestic rainwater harvesting. The results showed that rainwater storage facilities were within the recommended distance of 1000m from each house. The amount of rainwater per person per day was below the recommended amount. The majority of the respondents therefore depended on other sources of water. Though the physico-chemical quality of rainwater met the WHO guideline limit for drinking water, the bacteriological quality did not. The majority of common water-associated infections experienced prior to the project have not been experienced after the project.

The Effects of Storage on Sachet Water Quality in Ogun State, Nigeria

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of storage on the physicochemical status and bacteriological quality of sachet water produced and sold in Abeokuta metropolis, Nigeria. Ten brands of sachet water were collected within 24 hours of production and stored at ambient temperature. Sub-samples were drawn from the stock samples immediately for physico-chemical and microbiological analyses and after two months. Physical parameters were determined by instrumental methods. Cationic and anionic constituents were determined by standard titrimetric and spectrophotometric methods, trace and heavy water were determined by Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer. The study revealed that all the brands of water analyzed were physically and chemically wholesome and met the WHO standards. Five brands (50%) of the water had total viable and coliform count above the recommended count of 100cfu/m and zero cfu/ml, respectively. pH values increased in all brands to acceptable WHO limits within 2 months of storage except for sample 3 and 4 which decreases below the acceptable limit. Majorly dissolved oxygen and nitrate values decreased through the investigation period. Total and faecal coliform appeared in 50% of sachet water samples analyzed immediately after production and were no longer detected after storing for two months except for sample 4. Results of the experiment indicate that 60% of the brands analyzed met the WHO guideline limit for drinking especially for the physico-chemical parameters while the majority failed in the microbiological essay when stored at ambient temperature for the two-month investigation period.KEYWORDS: Coliforms, Conductivity, Microbiological Assay, Physical and Chemical Parameters,Turbidity, Sachet Water

Total coliforms, arsenic and cadmium exposure through drinking water in the Western Region of Ghana: application of multivariate statistical technique to groundwater quality.

In recent times, surface water resource in the Western Region of Ghana has been found to be inadequate in supply and polluted by various anthropogenic activities. As a result of these problems, the demand for groundwater by the human populations in the peri-urban communities for domestic, municipal and irrigation purposes has increased without prior knowledge of its water quality. Water samples were collected from 14 public hand-dug wells during the rainy season in 2013 and investigated for total coliforms, Escherichia coli, mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) and physicochemical parameters. Multivariate statistical analysis of the dataset and a linear stoichiometric plot of major ions were applied to group the water samples and to identify the main factors and sources of contamination. Hierarchal cluster analysis revealed four clusters from the hydrochemical variables (R-mode) and three clusters in the case of water samples (Q-mode) after z score standardization. Principal component analysis after a varimax rotation of the dataset indicated that the four factors extracted explained 93.3 % of the total variance, which highlighted salinity, toxic elements and hardness pollution as the dominant factors affecting groundwater quality. Cation exchange, mineral dissolution and silicate weathering influenced groundwater quality. The ranking order of major ions was Na(+) > Ca(2+) > K(+) > Mg(2+) and Cl(-) > SO4 (2-) > HCO3 (-). Based on piper plot and the hydrogeology of the study area, sodium chloride (86 %), sodium hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate (14 %) water types were identified. Although E. coli were absent in the water samples, 36 % of the wells contained total coliforms (Enterobacter species) which exceeded the WHO guidelines limit of zero colony-forming unit (CFU)/100 mL of drinking water. With the exception of Hg, the concentration of As and Cd in 79 and 43 % of the water samples exceeded the WHO guideline limits of 10 and 3 μg/L for drinking water, respectively. Reported values in some areas in Nigeria, Malaysia and USA indicated that the maximum concentration of Cd was low and As was high in this study. Health risk assessment of Cd, As and Hg based on average daily dose, hazard quotient and cancer risk was determined. In conclusion, multiple natural processes and anthropogenic activities from non-point sources contributed significantly to groundwater salinization, hardness, toxic element and microbiological contamination of the study area. The outcome of this study can be used as a baseline data to prioritize areas for future sustainable development of public wells.

Exposure to Emissions from Kerosene Cooking Stoves and the Pulmonary Health Status of Women in Olorunda Community, Ibadan, Nigeria

Exposure to high PM10 by women and children for hours on a daily basis in poor ventilated kitchen may lead to respiratory morbidity among this vulnerable group. In Nigeria, data on the levels of air pollutants associated with kerosene stove combustion are very scarce. Like-wise little had been documented on the pulmonary health of women exposed to kerosene stove emission. This study was carried out to measure the levels of kerosene combustion emissions within kitchen environments and also assess the pulmonary function status of the exposed women at baseline. Particulate matter (PM10) and gaseous emissions (GE) were measured in six purposively selected clusters of regular kerosene stove users (KSU) using gravimetric sampler and gas monitors, respectively and their values compared with WHO guideline limits. 167 randomly selected KSU were surveyed to elicit their socio demographic features. A spirometer was used to assess the lung function status (FEV1) of 72 KSU in six neighbourhood kitchen clusters. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, and Pearson’s correlation tests. Respondents’ mean age was 38 + 12.9 years. Mean duration of exposure to GE was 18.9 + 9.8 years. Mean PM10 was 248.1 + 14.1 μg/m3 and ten folds higher than WHO guideline limit of 25 μg/m3. Mean GE in ppm were: CO (0.00), CO2 (200.1 + 12.4), SO2 (0.01 + 0.00) and NO2 (0.00). Mean FEV1 among KSU was 2.0 + 0.5 litres which was significantly lower than the mean predicted value of 2.7 ± 0.5 litres. There was a negative correlation between PM10 and FEV1 (r = -0.7539, p > 0.05). Safer cooking methods and practices to obviate health hazards are advocated.

Development of rainwater harvesting technology for securing domestic water supply in Ibadan, Nigeria

In both rural and urban areas, supplying adequate water to meet increasing population water demand is a major challenge faced by decision-makers in developing countries like Nigeria. This is as a result of the failure of conventional or municipal water supply systems to meet the challenges of providing clean water for the populace. People result to digging shallow and deep wells indiscriminately to supplement their daily water needs. As a result, the groundwater table would have been falling, causing hydrological imbalance. Domestic Roof-water Harvesting (DRWH) and groundwater recharge provide innovative solution to the inadequate water supply. In this study, a complete RWH technology was designed and constructed for a household, where public water system was non-existent. The RWH technology was incorporated into the existing shallow well water system. Water samples from the RWH system and shallow well were analysed using standard methods. With roof area of 70 m2, 21 m3 reservoirs was required for dry period. The Hardness, Alkalinity, Chloride, Iron and Nitrate of the harvested water showed values of 20.0, 21.0, 15.0, 0.2 and 2.0 mg/l respectively while pH was 6.8. The values were below WHO guideline limits for drinking water. Safety measures were taken to ensure that the harvested rainwater was of good quality. The study revealed that RWH technology is a viable and reliable water supply option in both urban and rural areas for domestic purposes.