Wetland Policy Research Articles

Wetlands in Ethiopia: Lessons From 20\xa0years of Research, Policy and Practice

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa wetlands provide ecosystem services that are critical to the development needs of many people. Local wetland use, however, is often at odds with broader national policy goals in which narratives of conservation and protection dominate, hence a recurring challenge is how to reconcile these tensions through the development of policies and field practice that deliver sustainable development. In this paper we examine the extent to which this challenge has been achieved in Ethiopia, charting the changes in wetlands policy and discourse over the last twenty years while reviewing the contribution of the multidisciplinary Ethiopian Wetlands Research Programme (EWRP) (1997–2000). Our analysis suggests that despite EWRP having a significant legacy in developing national interest in wetlands among research, government and non-governmental organisations, its more holistic social-ecological interpretation of wetland management remains neglected within a policy arena dominated by specific sectoral interests and little recognition of the needs of local people. In exploring the impacts at the local level, recent investigations with communities in Ilu Aba Bora Zone highlight adjustments in wetland use that famers attribute to environmental, economic and social change, but which also evidence the adaptive nature of wetland-based livelihoods.

北京市湿地生态补偿标准研究

确定合理的湿地生态补偿标准是构建有效湿地生态补偿机制的关键。以北京市境内的湿地为研究对象，利用DPSIR模型明晰北京市湿地生态补偿的机理；基于问卷调查数据，分别利用二元Logistic模型和Tobit模型对影响受调查者受偿态度和受偿意愿的相关因素进行分析；运用条件价值法以及考虑时间价值和经济社会发展阶段的修正湿地生态系统服务价值确定最终的生态补偿标准，并对北京市制定湿地生态补偿机制提出了政策建议。研究结果表明：（1）北京市合理的湿地生态补偿标准为2.728×10⁴-4.84×10⁴元hm^-2a^-1；（2）地区差异、受调查者对湿地保护政策的了解程度以及湿地与社区之间的关系显著影响其受偿态度；（3）地区差异、年龄、受教育程度、家庭收入情况、对生态补偿的了解程度显著影响其受偿意愿；（4）为减少将来推进湿地生态补偿过程中可能遭遇的潜在阻碍，北京市应该加强湿地保护相关政策的宣传普及工作，注重对基层政策落实情况的监督，协调湿地政策与社区的关系；（5）有必要结合地区特征制定差异化的湿地生态补偿标准。研究结果可为今后北京市探索建立湿地生态补偿机制、提升湿地保护效率提供科学数据和理论参考。;Determining wetland ecological compensation standard is the key to constructing effective wetland ecological compensation mechanism. Taking the wetland in Beijing as the research object, this paper analyzes the mechanism of wetland ecological compensation in Beijing by using Drive forces-Pressure-State-Impact-Response model(DPSIR). Based on the questionnaire survey data, binary Logistic model and Tobit model were used to analyze the factors influencing the respondents' compensation willingness and compensation standard, respectively. Using the conditional value method and the value of the revised wetland ecosystem service considering the time value and the stage of economic and social development, the final ecological compensation standard was determined, and policy suggestions were put forward for formulating the wetland ecological compensation mechanism in Beijing. The results show that (1) the reasonable compensation standard of wetland ecology in Beijing is 2.728×10⁴-4.84×10⁴ yuan hm^-2 a^-1. (2) The regional differences, respondents' understanding of wetland protection policies and the relationship between wetlands and communities significantly affect their attitude towards compensation. (3) Regional differences, age, education, family income, and understanding of ecological compensation significantly affect their willingness to be compensated. (4) In order to reduce the potential obstacles in the process of wetland ecological compensation, Beijing should strengthen the popularization of wetland protection policies, pay attention to the implementation of the policies, and coordinate the relationship between wetland policies and communities. (5) Different wetland ecological compensation standards should be formulated according to regional characteristics. The results can provide scientific data and theoretical reference for Beijing to explore establishing wetland ecological compensation mechanism and improving wetland protection efficiency in the future.

Distinguishing the street‐level policy entrepreneur

AbstractPolicy entrepreneurs—individuals who champion a policy and engage in intense advocacy to secure it—are most frequently characterized as political elites or individuals well connected to such elites. However, an emerging literature suggests that street‐level bureaucrats who deliver government services to the public can also prosecute policy entrepreneurship. There has been little investigation of how these actors differ from elite‐level policy entrepreneurs who focus on agenda‐setting and initial policy approval. Evidence from six case vignettes from US state wetland policy suggest that street‐level policy entrepreneurs are distinguished by defensive motivation, greater constancy of effort, recruitment of a less politically powerful network of supporters, and challenges associated with cultivating ties to external resource providers and intra‐governmental allies. Street‐level policy entrepreneurship helps explain policy innovation within bureaucracies and by bureaucrats, offering new insight into the motivation and behaviours of ground‐level officials whose day‐to‐day choices shape policy.

Poyang lake wetlands restoration in China: An analysis of farmers’ perceptions and willingness to participate

The purpose of this study is to inform the stakeholders about individual farmers’ attitudes toward Poyang Lake wetlands restoration, preferences about compensation policies, and their willingness to participate in wetland restoration. Using survey data from the Poyang Lake region, this paper investigates the factors affecting individual farmers’ willingness-to-accept (WTA) compensation amounts and the decision to participate. Particularly, we incorporate into analysis farmers’ knowledge about wetland restoration and perceptions toward government policies. The research findings first suggest individual characteristics and household attributes affect both farmers’ willingness to participate and WTA. While numbers of seniors and of farm laborers in the household have larger impact on participation decisions, marriage status, house value and household income play more important roles in determining the WTA compensation amount; 2) Positive attitudes toward government wetland policy not only increase willingness to participate but decrease WTA compensation amount; 3) A better understanding of the environmental benefits of wetland restoration leads to acceptance of a lower compensation amount. Our study provides important policy implications to the government that supplementing monetary compensation with educational programs and policy campaigns may increase farmers’ participation in wetland restoration.

Local ecological knowledge and wetland management in the Ethiopian Rift Valley

Freshwater systems are productive environments and vital for the livelihood of local people. The provision of goods and services is, however, related to their functionality and sustainability. Like some other countries, Ethiopia lacks frequent and programmed freshwater inventories. As a result, threats facing freshwater ecosystems and management strategies cannot be tracked adequately. This research, therefore, aimed to identify main threats affecting the Ethiopian Rift Valley lake (Ziway) and forward possible management strategies. Structured questionnaire and focus group discussions were used to interview and discuss with the local people regarding the current status of the wetland and management practices. Relevant literature were also reviewed from articles, reports, and policies. To support the policy review, a semi-structured questionnaire related to Ethiopian water policy scenario was used to interview officials, who have a direct or indirect responsibility to protect wetlands. The results indicated that Lake Ziway is being highly degraded mainly due to lack of sense of ownership, poor policy implementation, and uncoordinated activities. The main policy gaps, which deter the conservation of wetlands in Ethiopia are generally classified into three as (a) issues not emphasized in the policies and strategies, (b) inconsistent policies and conflict among strategic issues, and (c) aspects considered by the policies but not implemented. Accordingly, (i) standalone wetland policy; (ii) implementation of existing water-related policies through (a) participatory stakeholder involvement and (b) multi-sectoral collaboration; and (iii) obeying international wetland conventions are recommended to enhance the functionality and sustainability of Lake Ziway and Ethiopian wetlands in general.

Geo-Spatial Analysis of Urban Wetlands Loss in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria

Urban wetlands make cities livable in many important ways. They reduce flooding, replenish drinking water, filter waste, provide urban green spaces, and are a source of livelihoods in most urban areas. This study aims to geo-spatially analyze urban wetland loss in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area (LGA), Rivers State, Nigeria. The study analyses land use /land cover changes (LULC) using Landsat7 UTM images of 2000, 2009 and 2018. The satellite images covering the area were acquired and analyzed using ArcGIS10.6. A total area of 25,773.39 sq km was delineated in the study area. After processing the imagery, five LULC classes where developed in ArcGIS environment, such as wetland, built-up area, vegetation, water bodies and bare surface. The study shows that the urban land-use of Obio-Akpor LGA had changed dramatically during the period of 18 years. In 2000, wetlands occupied the second-lowest classes with 9.12% (2352.15 sq.km) of the total classes due to high level of urban development in the area while built-up areas occupied the third-highest classes with 17.62% (4543.83 sq.km) of the total classes. In 2009, the study revealed that the built-up area (urban land use) rose to 19.3% (4975.11 sq.km) and maintained an increase in urban growth due to changes from constructions of many roads and houses while wetlands also surprisingly experienced an increase and occupied the third-highest classes with 19.17% (4942.26 sq.km). Evidence from the study show that 2018 witnessed an expansion in terms of developmental activities in all facets as the built-up area increased in three-fold size within the year, bare surface reduced to a class of 15.47% (4057.29 sq.km) forcing developers to develop towards the wetland ecosystem. The wetlands, therefore, experienced a sharp decline to 4.91% (1266.75 sq.km) due to rapid conversion of wetlands for housing development and excessive urban sprawl and its associated problems of inefficient use of land, urban space and the development of shanty towns/slums. The study concluded that there is a need for the wise use of wetland resources and improvement of institutional arrangement so that wetland policies can be fully integrated into the planning process across all disciplines.

China needs to incorporate ecosystem services into wetland conservation policies

China has implemented several ambitious wetland conservation policies, however wetland degradation remains a serious problem. The Chinese government is starting to recognize ecosystem services as a possible approach for identifying the most beneficial areas of the ecosystems and addressing wetland management and policy challenges. In the past two decades, Chinese scientists have begun testing a variety of approaches to advance the science of ecosystem services for wetland conservation. However, significant challenges remain, which are preventing wetland management and policy efforts from achieving desirable outcomes. In this paper, we first demonstrate why China needs to use ecosystem services information to inform policy and the main scientific challenges that need to be overcome to achieve this goal. We conclude a proposed framework for monitoring and valuing wetland ecosystem services to improve wetland policies.

Socio-Ecological Drivers of Land Use Change and Wetland Conversion in Kilombero Valley Floodoplain, Tanzania

Connections between social drivers (human activities) and ecological drivers (natural events) are currently considered as the key factors affecting land use change in tropical wetland ecosystem. However, the complexity interaction of these socio-ecological drivers is often poorly understood. This paper examined the interaction of these two systems in the Kilombero valley floodplain. Kilombero valley floodplain is one of the largest tropical wetland in Africa offering a wide spectrum of habitats for plant and animal species sustaining several ecosystem services and ecological functions, which has been under threat of wetland loss and degradation. The study used the documentary review approach to investigate the interaction of socio and ecological systems in the study area. The study revealed that population growth, market growth and price incentive for cash crops and timber products coupled with improved infrastructures, policy and institutional framework are the social drivers, while flat terrain characteristics, heavy black alluvial soils coupled with high water holding capacity, increased temperature and rainfall variability accompanied with prolonged dry spells are the ecological drivers of land use change and wetland conversion in the study area. However, there are relationships among these drivers, as they act simultaneously as well as differently to influence land use changes in the study area. The study recommended that socio-ecological interactions and the needs of local communities whose livelihood is highly dependent on wetland resources must be central to the development of wetland policies and wetland management approaches.

SALTWATER – FRESHWATER WETLAND ECOSYSTEM AND URBAN LAND USE CHANGE IN PORT HARCOURT METROPOLIS, NIGERIA

Urban development in wetland ecosystems for human settlement, transport networks, exploration /exploitation of natural resources, agriculture and industrial development is one of the biggest menace to wetland change and management. To estimate future urban expansion is very crucial for urban planners and environmental managers in fastest growing cities. This study aims to examine the saltwater/freshwater ecosystem and urban land use change in Port Harcourt metropolis, Nigeria. Sources of data for this study were acquired from a time series of landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus (ETM+) with Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) images were used to derive land use and land cover maps of the Port-Harcourt metropolis. This study revealed that both freshwater wetland and saltwater wetlands ecosystem occupied 46.99% (18837.1 Ha) of the total classes. This may be the result of wetland being in an undisturbed nature without any conversion or alteration for use. The urban land use change of Port-Harcourt metropolis had changed dramatically during the period of 29 years. The two wetlands (saltwater and freshwater wetland) sum up to a total of 40% (16497.5 Ha) which indicates that there is pressure on wetland use such as plant products harvested from fuel wood, human settlement, urban agriculture, sand dredging, sanitation, water pollution and industrial activities from oil companies within the metropolis. Efforts should be made to increase knowledge, sensitization, consultation, stakeholder’s participation and awareness on the wetlands values and wise use economy through dissemination of information, using appropriate techniques and training of adequate staff as well as the need for sound wetland policies, laws and legislation for sustainable use, management and control in conservation of wetland.

Socio-Environmental Perception of an Urban Wetland and Sustainability Scenarios: a Case Study in Mexico City

Local perceptions of landscape attributes are recognized as critical in the evaluation of multifunctional territories; however, case studies in the urban wetlands context are limited. This study assesses socioeconomic, environmental and regional management variables that may directly and indirectly affect local population’s perceptions, altering stakeholders concerns for defining urban wetland management agendas in the San Gregorio de Atapulco wetland of Xochimilco, Mexico City. Using Principal Component Analysis, we evaluated factors influencing socioenvironmental perceptions among urban wetland residents in the context of the chinampa area, an ancestral agro-productive system south of Mexico City. Results indicate the majority of socioeconomic and environmental variables, excluding age, gender and education, were not statistically significant. Regional management variables, particularly pertaining to canals, urban housing and irregular settlements, had significantly more importance than socioeconomic and environmental variables and influence resident’s perceptions of factors that detract from and promote sustainability of the urban wetland. In terms of urban wetland management agendas, locals` concerns were related to the effects of urbanization, wetland governance and regional habitability. We suggest that urban wetland policy developed within neighborhood planning units and aimed at reducing urban sprawl while introducing landscape conservation strategies could positively affect better local land use and wetland sustainability.

Estimating rates of wetland loss using power-law functions

Estimates of rates of wetland loss are important for understanding whether wetland policies meet their objectives. In Alberta, a no-net-area loss interim wetland policy was introduced in 1993. We tested the effectiveness of this interim wetland policy. A historical wetland inventory was established by generating a wetland inventory using digital topographic analysis and calculating a wetland-area vs. wetland-frequency power-law function from these data. Permanent wetland loss (topographic depression no longer exists) was calculated as the deviation from the historical wetland-inventory power-law function (representing the pre-settlement wetland inventory) and was estimated at 32.8% in number and 2.10% in area, with uncertainty estimates well below 1%. Temporary wetland loss (topographic depression remains on the landscape) was calculated as the difference between the historical wetland inventory and a time series of contemporary wetland inventories mapped from aerial photographs. Results indicate that as of 1993, 49.4% of the number of wetlands were temporarily lost (56.6% of wetland area), which increased in 2011 to 56.8% (68.0% of wetland area), with uncertainty estimates well below 1%. From 1993 to 2011, we estimated a rate of loss of 0.63% in wetland area/year. Wetland loss continued despite the introduction of the no-net-area-loss policy in 1993.

The spatial distribution of soil organic carbon in tidal wetland soils of the continental United States.

Tidal wetlands contain large reservoirs of carbon in their soils and can sequester carbon dioxide (CO2 ) at a greater rate per unit area than nearly any other ecosystem. The spatial distribution of this carbon influences climate and wetland policy. To assist with international accords such as the Paris Climate Agreement, national-level assessments such as the United States (U.S.) National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, and regional, state, local, and project-level evaluation of CO2 sequestration credits, we developed a geodatabase (CoBluCarb) and high-resolution maps of soil organic carbon (SOC) distribution by linking National Wetlands Inventory data with the U.S. Soil Survey Geographic Database. For over 600,000 wetlands, the total carbon stock and organic carbon density was calculated at 5-cm vertical resolution from 0 to 300cm of depth. Across the continental United States, there are 1,153-1,359 Tg of SOC in the upper 0-100cm of soils across a total of 24945.9km2 of tidal wetland area, twice as much carbon as the most recent national estimate. Approximately 75% of this carbon was found in estuarine emergent wetlands with freshwater tidal wetlands holding about 19%. The greatest pool of SOC was found within the Atchafalaya/Vermilion Bay complex in Louisiana, containing about 10% of the U.S. total. The average density across all tidal wetlands was 0.071g cm-3 across 0-15cm, 0.055g cm-3 across 0-100cm, and 0.040g cm-3 at the 100cm depth. There is inherent variability between and within individual wetlands; however, we conclude that it is possible to use standardized values at a range of 0-100cm of the soil profile, to provide first-order quantification and to evaluate future changes in carbon stocks in response to environmental perturbations. This Tier 2-oriented carbon stock assessment provides a scientific method that can be copied by other nations in support of international requirements.

Natural capital and the political economy of wetland governance in Alberta

ABSTRACTThe legitimacy of wetland decisions depends on how science and values are integrated and reflected in wetland management decisions. Natural capital and ecosystem services (ES) have become integral to how we think about ecosystem management however there is no consensus on how these concepts should be applied in management. Through the example of Alberta’s wetland policy, we show how policies designed to mainstream natural capital and ES in decision-making are aligned with liberal governance arrangements that emerged in the nineteenth century. There is a governance gap between individual wetland decisions and collective ecological outcomes. The Alberta wetland policy highlights three challenges to embracing the natural capital metaphor in a liberal government context: lack of consensus on policy objectives; case by case enforcement of policy leading to continued wetland drainage; and minimal consequences for non-compliance. The combination of norms about what is fair in terms of government intervention in land use decisions and scientific uncertainty about wetland ecosystem function makes it difficult to achieve consensus on limits to wetland loss contributing to continued loss of wetland ecological function. The discussion highlights the necessity of renewed political discourse about freedom, power, and justice in relation to collective economic and ecological security.

Land-use change and socio-ecological drivers of wetland conversion in Ha Tien Plain, Mekong Delta, Vietnam

The loss and degradation of wetlands in the Mekong Delta has been caused by a combination of human activities (social systems) and natural events (ecological systems). However, the complexity and interaction of these socio-ecological factors are poorly understood. This study provides a better understanding of the complex social-ecological factors affecting land-cover change in the Phu My Lepironia grassland conservation area, part of Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve, Vietnam. A systems thinking approach was used to determine the interaction between the social system and land-use and land-cover changes. Results indicate that ensuring food supply and improving income are the key endogenous drivers of wetland degradation in the study area. Over-exploitation of wetland resources and inappropriate agricultural practices are accelerating wetland conversion and degradation. The conflict and unclear land tenure, coupled with a desire for higher income, has driven the community to convert and reclaim large parts of the wetland. This process is also driven exogenously by wetland access and the fluctuation of commodity prices, which in-turn results in transition from traditional to extensive cropping systems and expansion of cultivated land into the protected wetland. The relationship between people and wetlands must be central to the development of wetland policies and wetland management approaches. This will improve how land use policy supports sustainable sources of food and income for the local community and concurrently reduce pressures on wetland degradation. Any efforts made to protect the remnant wetland grassland and its diverse ecosystem by regulation should be supplemented by developing and sustaining the relationship between social systems and ecological systems.

Effects of human-induced environmental changes on benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages of wetlands in Lake Tana Watershed, Northwest Ethiopia.

Wetlands of Lake Tana Watershed provide various ecological and socioeconomic functions. However, they are losing their vigor at alarming rate due to unwise management. Hence, there is an urgent need to monitor and assess these resources so as to identify the major drivers of its degradation and to provide information for management decisions. In this context, we aimed to assess the effects of human activities on macroinvertebrate assemblages of wetlands in Lake Tana Watershed. Biotic and abiotic data were collected from 46 sampling sites located in eight wetlands. A total of 2568 macroinvertebrates belonging to 46 families were recorded. Macroinvertebrate metrics such as Biological Monitoring Working Party score, Shannon diversity index, Ephemeroptera and odonata family richness, and total family richness portrayed a clear pattern of decreasing with increasing in human disturbances, whereas Family biotic index score, which is an indicator of organic pollution, increased with increasing in human disturbances. The regression analysis also revealed that livestock grazing, leather tanning, and eucalyptus plantation were important predictors of macroinvertebrate metrics (p<0.05). In conclusion, human activities in and around the wetlands such as farming, leather tanning, solid waste dumping, and effluent discharges were contributed to the degradation of water quality and decreasing in the macroinvertebrate richness and diversity. These alterations could also reduce the availability of wetland products (sedges, craft materials, etc.) and the related ecosystem services. This in turn has an adverse effect on food security and poverty alleviation with considerable impact on communities who heavily depend on wetland products for their livelihood. Therefore, it is essential to formulate wetland policy for achieving wise use goals and necessary legal and institutional backup for sustainable wetland management in Ethiopia.

Policy considerations for managing wetlands under a changing climate

Drawing on the experience and lessons of wetland researchers and managers in Australia and New Zealand, we examined the implications of climate change for wetland policy and management, and identified potential adaptation responses and the information needed to support these. First, we considered wetland vulnerability to climate change, focusing on wetland exposure and sensitivity. We then outlined the existing policy context for dealing with climate change, with an emphasis on the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. We then considered how the objectives and targets for wetland management can be set in the face of climate change, how management can be adapted to climate change given the uncertainties involved, and how we can monitor and evaluate wetland condition in the face of climate change. We concluded with a set of principles to guide adaptation of wetland conservation and management policy to climate change.

Assessing the environmental sustainability of cultivation systems in wetlands using the WET-Health framework in Zimbabwe

This article assesses the environmental sustainability of cultivation systems in three selected communal wetlands in Zimbabwe using the WET-Health framework developed by Macfarlane et al. (2008). This research was motivated by the desire to provide baseline information critical for effective and robust wetland policy development, as monitoring of wetland ecological conditions is relatively poor despite high community dependence on them. The WET-Health framework is based on indicator and impact scores of (1) extent, (2) intensity, and (3) magnitude of impact of different land-use types on wetlands. Our results show that wetland degradation is caused principally by land-use activities in the wetland instead of those in the upstream catchment. The tillage system of broad ridges and broad furrows (BR/BF) caused wetland drying due to drainage and alteration of vegetation community structure and composition. However, BR/BF is effective in erosion control. It is therefore argued that, in general, the BR/BF tillage system does not contribute to sustainable wetland use as it disrupts the ecosystem’s hydrological functioning. Given the inherent subjectivity of the WET-Health method results, this study has shown that integration of spatial mapping techniques, such as high-resolution remotely sensed data, improves the quality of ecological assessment.

National-Level Wetland Policy Specificity and Goals Vary According to Political and Economic Indicators.

Growing recognition of the importance of wetlands to human and ecosystem well-being has led countries worldwide to implement wetland protection policies. Different countries have taken different approaches to wetland protection by implementing various policies, including territorial exclusion, market-based offsetting, and incentive programs for land users. Our objective was to describe the relationship between components of national-level wetland protection policies and national characteristics, including natural resource, economic, social, and political factors. We compiled data on the wetland policies of all 193 countries recognized by the U.N. and described the relationships among wetland policy goals and wetland protection mechanisms using non-metric multidimensional scaling. The first non-metric multidimensional scaling axis strongly correlated with whether a country had a wetland-specific environmental policy in place. Adoption of a comprehensive, wetland-specific policy was positively associated with degree of democracy and a commitment to establishing protected areas. The second non-metric multidimensional scaling axis defined a continuum of policy goals and mechanisms by which wetlands are protected, with goals to protect wetland ecosystem services on one end of the spectrum and goals to protect biodiversity on the other. Goals for protecting ecosystem services were frequently cited in policy documents of countries with agriculture-based economies, whereas goals associated with wetland biodiversity tended to be associated with tourism-based economies. We argue that the components of a country's wetland policies reflect national-level resource and economic characteristics. Understanding the relationship between the type of wetland policy countries adopt and national-level characteristics is critical for international efforts to protect wetlands.

The missing link between awareness and the implementation of wetland policy and legislation in communal areas of Zimbabwe

This paper explores stakeholders’ perceptions of the efficacy of the current policies and legislation meant to conserve wetlands in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. A questionnaire was administered to one hundred and twenty three households adjacent to six wetlands studied including key informants who were interviewed. The existing laws were analysed to determine their appropriateness in light of peoples’ livelihood aspirations and principles of wetland protection. Zimbabwe has no national wetland policy per se but only wetland legislation, however inimitable policies shaped by indigenous tradition and practice were present at each wetland site. The majority of the people were not aware of the existence and rationale of laws governing the conservation of wetlands due to limited awareness education and enforcement by responsible institutions. Therefore, there was a disjuncture between legal provisions and the practical implementation resulting in less impact. Poor implementation of legislation was due to inadequate resources for regulatory agencies, political interference, social conflicts and high incidences of poverty among other factors. The results of the study highlighted that even if awareness was improved, enforcement was likely to remain a challenge unless adequate resources for regulatory institutions and alternative livelihood strategies for communities were availed. The paper thus recommends that development planners should therefore initiate other rural survival options such as restoration of dryland agricultural productivity by introducing water harvesting and conservation farming techniques. This would help to reduce community dependency on already vulnerable wetland ecosystems. Overall, a national wetland policy should be developed through a participatory process, if the legislation is to be used as an effective tool in wetland management.

Accounting for Wetland Loss: Wetland Mitigation Trends in Northeast Florida 2006–2013

The realization of wetland ‘no net loss’ policy under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act remains uncertain, as mitigation practices force a trade-off in on-site mitigation with loss of biological integrity and off-site mitigation with a redistribution of ecosystem services. Wetlands cover 25 % of the Lower St. Johns River Basin (LSJRB), northeastern Florida, a region impacted by urban development. This case study investigated whether impacted wetland area and type of mitigation differ with land use intensity among the years 2006–2013 from a review of 522 Environmental Resource Permits. A Landscape Development Intensity index was used to compare land use as a function of anthropogenic activity for permitted parcels and mitigation banks. Forested wetlands comprised 47–97 % of impacted wetland area/yr and the majority of parcels and mitigation banks were in mid to high development areas (75 % of area). On-site only mitigation (29 % of permits) and use of mitigation banks (27 %) were more common than off-site only mitigation (20 %). Wetland preservation (880 ha/yr) was more common than wetland creation (9 ha/yr). This study puts into question the ‘no net loss’ wetland policy as urban development contributes to cumulative loss, fragmentation, and re-organization of wetlands across the landscape despite compulsory mitigation.