Wet Tissue Research Articles

Modified cotton gauze with high hemostatic efficacy due to controllable hygroscopicity and wet tissue adhesiveness

AbstractIn circumstances of severe traumatic bleeding, urgent bleeding control is vital to the wellness and life of the wounded person. Among many hemostatic measures, gauze is widely used because of cost‐effectiveness, safety and efficiency. However, it may suck a large amount of blood before bleeding stops. Thus, advanced hemostatic gauzes less blood loss and quick hemostatic rate and is greatly demanded. Herein, a novel tissue adhesive gauze (TA‐gauze) is developed by coating a thin layer of polyethyleneimine/poly(acrylic acid) (PEI/PAA) on the plain cotton gauze. This TA‐gauze has a reduced hydrophilicity and gets a new trait of wet tissue adhesiveness from the PEI/PAA coating layer. The TA‐gauze shows much improved hemostatic performance in the rat injury models, that is, its blood loss in the rat femoral artery model is just 13% that of the cotton gauze, due to it can retard the blood movement in the gauze and at the seam of gauze/tissue through a synergistic effect of tissue adhesion and hygroscopicity. It is biocompatible and on‐demand detachable. The simple preparation procedure and high hemostatic efficiency of the TA‐gauze may promise a bright future for an ideal hemostatic dressing for bleeding control.

A Nature‐Derived, Hetero‐Structured, Pro‐Healing Bioadhesive Patch for High‐Performance Sealing of Wet Tissues (Adv. Mater. 25/2024)

A Nature‐Derived, Hetero‐Structured, Pro‐Healing Bioadhesive Patch for High‐Performance Sealing of Wet Tissues (Adv. Mater. 25/2024)

Bionic double-crosslinked hydrogel of poly (γ-glutamic acid)/poly (N-(2-hydroxyethyl) acrylamide) with ultrafast gelling process and ultrahigh burst pressure for emergency rescue

Injectable adhesive hydrogels combining rapid gelling with robust adhesion to wet tissues are highly required for fast hemostasis in surgical and major trauma scenarios. Inspired by the cross-linking mechanism of mussel adhesion proteins, we developed a bionic double-crosslinked (BDC) hydrogel of poly (γ-glutamic acid) (PGA)/poly (N-(2-hydroxyethyl) acrylamide) (PHEA) fabricated through a combination of photo-initiated radical polymerization and hydrogen bonding cross-linking. The BDC hydrogel exhibited an ultrafast gelling process within 1 s. Its maximum adhesion strength to wet porcine skin reached 254.5 kPa (9 times higher than that of cyanoacrylate (CA) glue) and could withstand an ultrahigh burst pressure of 626.4 mmHg (24 times higher than that of CA glue). Notably, the BDC hydrogel could stop bleeding within 10 s from a rat liver incision 10 mm long and 5 mm deep. The wound treated with the BDC hydrogel healed faster than the control groups, underlining the potential for emergency rescue and wound care scenarios.

Tissue hydrate layer-trigger swollen gelatin-based aerogel hemostatic material with bletilla striata complex active ingredient complex to promote hemostasis

Gelatin exhibits excellent solubility at the 37℃ tissue surface due to its affinity for the rich tissue hydrate water. However, its inherent property doesn't facilitate the formation of a robust physical barrier to effectively manage wound hemorrhage and promote hemostasis. To address this challenge, a novel gelatin-based derivative (Ged) with swollen property upon absorbing the tissue hydrate layer was prepared. In this work, a hydrophobic monomer was introduced into gelatin under amide reaction to regulate the interactions between water molecules and gelatin molecular chains. This investigation results showed that Ged exhibited excellent adhesion properties and long-term swollen at 37 °C. In addition, bletilla striata complex active ingredients (Bscai) was employed to the Ged to promote hemostasis capacity, which referred to as Bscai/Ged hemostatic material. In-depth experiments were conducted to investigate the structural characteristics and biocompatibility of Bscai/Ged hemostatic materials, those results revealed that Bscai/Ged hemostatic materials had swift hydrate layer-trigger rate, robust adhesive strength on wet tissue surfaces, outstanding hemostatic properties and facilitating accelerated wound healing. Additionally, in vivo experimental results indicated that the Bscai/Ged hemostatic material could mitigate inflammatory responses, promote collagen deposition and enhance angiogenesis. Overall, Bscai/Ged hemostatic material presents a highly promising candidate for advanced hemostatic material applications.

Coagulating blood into adhesive gel by hybrid powder based on oppositely charged polysaccharide/tannic acid-modified mesoporous bioactive glass

Hemostatic powder is widely utilized in emergency situations to control bleeding due to its ability to work well on wounds with irregular shapes, ease of application, and long-term stability. However, traditional powder often suffers from limited tissue adhesion and insufficient support for blood clot formation, leaving it susceptible to displacement by the flow of blood. This study introduces a hemostatic powder composed of tannic modified mesoporous bioactive glass (TMBG), cationic quaternized chitosan (QCS), and anionic hyaluronic acid modified with catechol group (HADA). The resulting TMBG/QCS/HADA based hemostatic powder (TMQH) rapidly absorbs plasma, concentrating blood coagulation factors. Simultaneously, the water-soluble QCS and HADA interact to form a 3D network structure, which can be strengthened by crosslinking with TMBG. This network effectively captures clustered blood coagulation factors, leading to a strong and adhesive thrombus that resists disruption from blood flow. TMQH exhibits superior efficacy in promoting hemostasis compared to Celox™ both in rat arterial injuries and non-compressible liver puncture wounds. TMQH demonstrates excellent antibacterial activity, cytocompatibility, and blood compatibility. These outstanding superiorities in blood clotting capability, wet tissue adhesion, antibacterial activity, safety for living organisms, ease of application, and long-term stability, make TMQH highly suitable for emergency hemostasis.

Comparative Muscle Physiology of Ringed (Pusa hispida), Bearded (Erignathus barbatus), and Spotted (Phoca largha) Seals from the Bering and Chukchi Seas

The physiological properties of marine mammal skeletal muscle are foundational in defining diving and foraging capacities. Further, these parameters can be useful when assessing the behavioral flexibility of species faced with environmental change or disturbance. Herein, we define species- and age-specific muscle physiology for three ice-associated seal species experiencing Arctic warming. Specifically, we evaluated myoglobin content ([Mb]), nonbicarbonate buffering capacity (β), and fiber type profiles of a major locomotor muscle, the longissimus dorsi. Muscle samples were obtained from subsistence harvested ringed (Pusa hispida; n = 11), bearded (Erignathus barbatus; n = 41), and spotted (Phoca largha; n = 12) seals of all ages in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. Adult ringed seals had the highest [Mb] (6.67 ± 0.20 g 100 g wet tissue-1), followed by spotted (5.38 ± 0.29 g 100 g wet tissue-1) and bearded (4.55 ± 0.07 g 100 g wet tissue-1) seals. [Mb] increased with age for all species, but rates of increase differed by species. In contrast, β was similar for all species and age classes. We documented higher proportions of fast-twitch relative to slow-twitch fibers in these species, and fiber type proportions did not differ significantly with age. Adult bearded seals exhibited the greatest proportion of fast-twitch fibers (68.7 ± 1.5%), followed by ringed (59.0 ± 4.8%) and spotted (55.1 ± 2.1%) seals. Overall, our data suggest a strong link between muscle physiology, diving behavior, and life history strategies, and provide insight into the physiological capacities of these potentially vulnerable species.

Non-Covalent Cross-Linking Hydrogel: A New Method for Visceral Hemostasis.

Excessive blood loss could lead to pathological conditions such as tissue necrosis, organ failure, and death. The limitations of recently developed hemostatic approaches, such as their low mechanical strength, inadequate wet tissue adhesion, and weak hemostatic activity, pose challenges for their application in controlling visceral bleeding. In this study, a novel hydrogel (CT) made of collagen and tannic acid (TA) was proposed. By altering the proportions between the two materials, the mechanical properties, adhesion, and coagulation ability were evaluated. Compared to commercial hydrogels, this hydrogel has shown reduced blood loss and shorter hemostatic time in rat hepatic and cardiac bleeding models. This was explained by the hydrogel's natural hemostatic properties and the significant benefits of wound closure in a moist environment. Better biodegradability was achieved through the non-covalent connection between tannic acid and collagen, allowing for hemostasis without hindering subsequent tissue repair. Therefore, this hydrogel is a new method for visceral hemostasis that offers significant advantages in treating acute wounds and controlling major bleeding. And the production method is simple and efficient, which facilitates its translation to clinical applications.

Biocompatible Tough Ionogels with Reversible Supramolecular Adhesion.

Cohesive and interfacial adhesion energies are difficult to balance to obtain reversible adhesives with both high mechanical strength and high adhesion strength, although various methods have been extensively investigated. Here, a biocompatible citric acid/L-(-)-carnitine (CAC)-based ionic liquid was developed as a solvent to prepare tough and high adhesion strength ionogels for reversible engineered and biological adhesives. The prepared ionogels exhibited good mechanical properties, including tensile strength (14.4 MPa), Young's modulus (48.1 MPa), toughness (115.2 MJ m-3), and high adhesion strength on the glass substrate (24.4 MPa). Furthermore, the ionogels can form mechanically matched tough adhesion at the interface of wet biological tissues (interfacial toughness about 191 J m-2) and can be detached by saline solution on demand, thus extending potential applications in various clinical scenarios such as wound adhesion and nondestructive transfer of organs.

Nature-Inspired Gelatin-Based Adhesive Hydrogel: A Rapid and User-Friendly Solution for Hemostatic Applications.

Conventional hemostatic agents face challenges in achieving rapid hemostasis and effective tissue repair due to limited hemostatic scenarios, suboptimal efficacy, and inadequate adhesion to wet tissues. Drawing inspiration from nature-sourced materials, a gelatin-based adhesive hydrogel (AOT) is designed, easily prepared and quick to form, driven by Schiff base and multiple hydrogen bonds for applications in arterial and liver bleeding models. AOT exhibits exceptional adhesion to wet tissues (48.67±0.16kPa) and displays superior hemostatic properties with reduced blood loss and hemostatic time compared to other hydrogels and conventional hemostatic materials. Moreover, AOT exhibits good biocompatibility and biodegradability. In summary, this easily prepared adhesive hydrogel has the potential to supplant traditional hemostatic agents, offering a novel approach to achieve swift sealing of hemostasis and facilitate wound healing and repair in broader application scenarios, owing to its unique advantages.

Clotting Blood into an Adhesive Gel by Hemostatic Powder Based on Cationic/Anionic Polysaccharides and Laponite.

Hemostatic powder is widely employed for emergency bleeding control due to its ability to conform to irregularly shaped wounds, ease of use, and stable storage. However, current powders exhibit limited tissue adhesion and insufficient support for thrombus formation, making them easily washed away by blood. In this study, a hybrid powder (QAL) was produced by mixing quaternized chitosan (QCS) powder, catechol-modified alginate (Cat-SA) powder, and laponite (Lap) powder. Upon addition of QAL, the blood quickly transformed to a robust and adhesive blood gel. The adhesion strength of the blood gel was up to 31.33 ± 1.56 kPa. When compared with Celox, QAL showed superior performance in promoting hemostasis. Additionally, QAL exhibited effectiveness in eliminating bacteria while also demonstrating outstanding biocompatibility with cells and blood. These favorable properties, including strong coagulation, adhesion to wet tissue, antibacterial activity, biosafety, ease of use, and stable storage, make QAL a promising emergency hemostatic agent.

Self-healing, antioxidant, and antibacterial Bletilla striata polysaccharide-tannic acid dual dynamic crosslinked hydrogels for tissue adhesion and rapid hemostasis

Biomaterials capable of achieving effective sealing and hemostasis at moist wounds are in high demand in the clinical management of acute hemorrhage. Bletilla striata polysaccharide (BSP), a natural polysaccharide renowned for its hemostatic properties, holds promising applications in biomedical fields. In this study, a dual-dynamic-bonds crosslinked hydrogel was synthesized via a facile one-pot method utilizing poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-borax as a matrix system, followed by the incorporation of BSP and tannic acid (TA). Chemical borate ester bonds formed around borax, coupled with multiple physical hydrogen bonds between BSP and other components, enhanced the mechanical properties and rapid self-healing capabilities. The catechol moieties in TA endowed the hydrogel with excellent adhesive strength of 30.2 kPa on the surface of wet tissues and facilitated easy removal without residue. Benefiting from the synergistic effect of TA and the preservation of the intrinsic properties of BSP, the hydrogel exhibited outstanding biocompatibility, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties. Moreover, it effectively halted acute bleeding within 31.3 s, resulting in blood loss of 15.6 % of that of the untreated group. As a superior hemostatic adhesive, the hydrogel in this study is poised to offer a novel solution for addressing future acute hemorrhage, wound healing, and other biomedical applications.

Isotope Distribution Analysis in H₂18O Pulse-Labeled Trees Frozen with Liquid Nitrogen.

Tracer injection has long been recognized as a valuable tool for delineating tree hydraulics and assessing water transport pathways. Recently, isotope tracers have emerged as innovative instruments for investigating tree hydraulics, providing new insights into tree water dynamics. Nevertheless, there is a critical need for further research to comprehensively grasp water movement and distribution within trees. A previously introduced technique for analyzing the isotopic ratio of water in wet tissues, offering millimeter-scale resolution for visualizing tracer movement, faces challenges due to its underdeveloped sample preparation techniques. In this study, we introduced an H2 18O tracer into S. gracilistyla samples, exclusively comprising indeterminate roots, stems, and leaves, cultivated through hydroponics and grown within the current year. Our objective was to assess the axial distribution of the tracer in the xylem. Additionally, we devised a novel method for preparing frozen wet tissue samples, enhancing the repeatability and success rate of experiments. The results demonstrated that all frozen wet tissue samples exhibited an average water loss rate of less than 0.6%. Isotopic analysis of these samples unveiled a consistent decline in tracer concentration with increasing height in all Salix specimens, with three out of five samples revealing a significant isotope gradient. Our findings affirm the efficacy and practicality of combining isotopic labeling with freezing, stabilization, and preparation techniques. Looking ahead, our isotopic labeling and analysis methods are poised to transcend woody plants, finding extensive applications in plant physiology and ecohydrology.

Analysis of heavy metals in Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish), Perca flavescens (yellow perch), and Aplodinotus grunniens (freshwater drum) in a Coastal Lake Michigan Watershed

Studies on metals in Great Lakes fish have focused typically on mercury (Hg), with less attention on other contaminants. Few studies exist on fish from drowned river mouths supplying the Great Lakes. This paper reports on metals in 3 common species, Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish), Perca flavescens (yellow perch), and Aplodinotus grunniens (freshwater drum, a.k.a. sheep head) sampled from a coastal lake in West Michigan, USA. 135 fish were taken with pole and line methods from 6 different locations from July 2019–July 2021. Flank tissues were processed and analyzed by ICP-OES techniques for antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cerium (Ce), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn). Eight metals detected at quantifiable levels were Ba, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Se, and Zn. Mg levels were the highest for all sites and all fish, with averages ranging from 300-1400 ppm (mg/kg of wet tissue). Zn concentrations ranged 11–21 ppm, Fe 4–14 ppm, Se 1–5 ppm, Mn about 0.4–1 ppm, and Cu below 1 ppm. Cr was only quantifiable in 34 % of the fish at <1 ppm, and Ba was detectable in 20 % of the fish, from approximately 0.1 to 4 ppm. Results were examined for statistically-significant differences between species and sites. Comparison of 3 species from one site showed sheep head had lower levels of all metals, except Fe, which were indistinguishable from perch. Cu was higher in catfish than perch, and Mn and Ba concentrations were lower in sheep head by 10× and 100×, respectively, when compared to other species. Zn, Mg, Fe, and Mn concentrations were different in perch from different sites; and, sheep head contained different concentrations of Se, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu, and Ba between sites.

Implantable Resistive Strain Sensor-Decorated Colloidal Crystal Hydrogel Catheter for Intestinal Tract Pressure Sensing.

In the quest to develop advanced monitoring systems for intestinal peristaltic stress, this study introduces a groundbreaking approach inspired by nature's sensory networks. By the integration of novel materials and innovative manufacturing techniques, a multifunctional Janus hydrogel patch has been engineered. This unique patch not only demonstrates superior stress-sensing capabilities in the intricate intestinal environment but also enables adhesion to wet tissue surfaces. This achievement opens new avenues for real-time physiological monitoring and potential therapeutic interventions in the realm of gastrointestinal health.

Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory polyethyleneimine/polyacrylic acid hydrogel loaded with CeO2 quantum dots for wet tissue wound dressings

Searching for an antibacterial and anti-inflammatory dressing that can stably adhere to wet tissues remains a momentous clinical challenge, especially in the context of treatment failure due to multi-drug-resistant bacteria. Using a hard template method in combination with an in situ chelating strategy, three-dimensional nitrogen-doped graded porous carbon anchored 1.5–2.5 nm CeO2 quantum dots (CeO2-QDs) were tailor-designed in this study. Using the size effect, CeO2-QDs have a higher percentage of Ce3+ and oxygen vacancies that could amplify their antibacterial effects. Polyethyleneimine/polyacrylic acid (PEA) powder could self-gel and be adhesive due to its strong physical interactions, which make it an ideal carrier for CeO2-QDs. PEA@50 (mg/mL) CeO2-QDs hydrogel and PEA@75 (mg/mL) CeO2-QDs hydrogel with moderate doses of CeO2-QDs show a superior antibacterial effect against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains. Furthermore, PEA@50CeO2-QDs hydrogels possess excellent anti-inflammatory capacity through their antioxidant activity, which could promote macrophage M2 phenotype polarization. More importantly, cytotoxicity assays on L929 fibroblasts show that PEA@CeO2-QDs hydrogels have no significant toxicity, and a significant proliferative effect could be observed. Overall, PEA@50CeO2-QDs hydrogels have the potential to become a multifunctional wet tissue dressing with anti-inflammatory and antiseptic properties to promote the healing of infected wounds.

Lung-specific interleukin 6 mediated transglutaminase 2 activation and cardiopulmonary fibrogenesis.

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) pathogenesis is driven by inflammatory and metabolic derangements as well as glycolytic reprogramming. Induction of both interleukin 6 (IL6) and transglutaminase 2 (TG2) expression participates in human and experimental cardiovascular diseases. However, little is known about the role of TG2 in these pathologic processes. The current study aimed to investigate the molecular interactions between TG2 and IL6 in mediation of tissue remodeling in PH. A lung-specific IL6 over-expressing transgenic mouse strain showed elevated right ventricular (RV) systolic pressure as well as increased wet and dry tissue weights and tissue fibrosis in both lungs and RVs compared to age-matched wild-type littermates. In addition, IL6 over-expression induced the glycolytic and fibrogenic markers, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), and TG2. Consistent with these findings, IL6 induced the expression of both glycolytic and pro-fibrogenic markers in cultured lung fibroblasts. IL6 also induced TG2 activation and the accumulation of TG2 in the extracellular matrix. Pharmacologic inhibition of the glycolytic enzyme, PKM2 significantly attenuated IL6-induced TG2 activity and fibrogenesis. Thus, we conclude that IL6-induced TG2 activity and cardiopulmonary remodeling associated with tissue fibrosis are under regulatory control of the glycolytic enzyme, PKM2.

A Solvent Exchange Induced Robust Wet Adhesive Hydrogels to Treat Solid Tumor Through Synchronous Ethanol Ablation and Chemotherapy.

The treatment of tumors in developing countries, especially those with poor medical conditions, remains a significant challenge. Herein, a novel solvent-exchange strategy to prepare adhesive hydrogels for the concurrent treatment of tumors through synchronous ethanol ablation and local chemotherapy is reported. First, a poly (gallic acid-lipoic acid) (PGL) ethanol gel is prepared that can undergo solvent exchange with water to form a hydrogel in situ. PGL ethanol gel deposited on the wet tissue can form a hydrogel in situ to effectively repel interfacial water and establish a tight contact between the hydrogel and tissue. Additionally, the functional groups between the hydrogels and tissues can form covalent and non-covalent bonds, resulting in robust adhesion. Furthermore, this PGL ethanol gel demonstrates exceptional capacity to effectively load antitumor drugs, allowing for controlled and sustained release of the drugs locally and sustainably both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the PGL ethanol gel can combine ethanol ablation and local chemotherapy to enhance the antitumor efficacy in vitro and in vivo. The PGL ethanol gel-derived hydrogel shows robust wet bioadhesion, drug loading, sustained release, good biocompatibility and biodegradability, easy preparation and usage, and cost-effectiveness, which make it a promising bioadhesive for diverse biomedical applications.

Biodegradable all-natural hydrogel–mesh composite for wet tissues adhesion and infected wound healing

The application of meshes in surgery is severely limited by complications associated with the non-absorbable nature, the lack of bioactivities, and the need of sutures and/or staples to fix meshes on tissues. In this contribution, a self-adhesive hydrogel-mesh composite (HMC) with biodegradability and multiple bioactivities was developed to address these issues and meet the clinical requirements. In this HMC system, GelMA hydrogel network was first macrotopological entangled with the fibers of a natural small intestinal submucosa (SIS) meshes, and then strengthened by soaking in a multi-functional H-bond provider (i.e., tannic acid, TA) solution to form the G/SIS-TA composite. The pyrogallol groups of the TA molecules endow G/SIS-TA with excellent wet adhesiveness (shear strength: ∼60 kPa), antioxidant, and antibacterial ability. The G/SIS-TA was also found to exhibit excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, and immunoregulatory activity. The G/SIS-TA significantly decrease the bacterial burden in a mouse peritonitis infection model and promote the healing of infected full-thickness rat skin wounds in vivo. This work not only reports a novel SIS-based HMC which was efficient in treating infected wounds, but also offers an innovative strategy of the development of self-adhesive bio-patch for various biomedical applications.

A Nature-Derived, Hetero-Structured, Pro-Healing Bioadhesive Patch for High-Performance Sealing of Wet Tissues.

Tissue adhesives are promising alternatives to sutures and staples to achieve wound closure and hemostasis. However, they often do not work well on tissues that are soaked in blood or other biological fluids, and organs that are typically exposed to a variety of harsh environments such as different pH values, nonhomogeneous distortions, continuous expansions and contractions, or high pressures. In this study, a nature-derived multilayered hetero-bioadhesive patch (skin secretion of Andrias davidianus (SSAD)-Patch) based on hydrophilic/hydrophobic pro-healing bioadhesives derived from the SSAD is developed, which is designed to form pressure-triggered strong adhesion with wet tissues. The SSAD-Patch is successfully applied for the sealing and healing of tissue defects within 10 s in diverse extreme injury scenarios in vivo including rat stomach perforation, small intestine perforation, fetal membrane defect, porcine carotid artery incision, and lung lobe laceration. The findings reveal a promising new type of self-adhesive regenerative SSAD-Patch, which is potentially adaptable to broad applications (under different pH values and air or liquid pressures) in sutureless wound sealing and healing.

Strongly Adhesive, Self-Healing, Hemostatic Hydrogel for the Repair of Traumatic Brain Injury.

With wide clinical demands, therapies for traumatic brain injury (TBI) are a major problem in surgical procedures and after major trauma. Due to the difficulty in regeneration of neurons or axons after injury, as well as the inhibition of blood vessel growth by the formation of neural scars, existing treatment measures have limited effectiveness in repairing brain tissue. Herein, the biomultifunctional hydrogels are developed for TBI treatment based on the Schiff base reaction of calcium ion (Ca2+)-cross-linked oxidized sodium alginate (OSA) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS). The obtained COCS hydrogel exhibits excellent adhesion to wet tissues, self-repair capability, and antimicrobial properties. What's particularly interesting is that the addition of Ca2+ increases the hydrogel's extensibility, enhancing its hemostatic capabilities. Biological assessments indicate that the COCS hydrogel demonstrates excellent biocompatibility, hemostatic properties, and the ability to promote arterial vessel repair. Importantly, the COCS hydrogel promotes the growth of cerebral microvessels by upregulating CD31, accelerates the proliferation of astrocytes, enhances the expression of GFAP, and stimulates the expression of neuron-specific markers such as NEUN and β-tubulin. All of these findings highlight that the strongly adhesive, self-healing, hemostatic hydrogel shows great potential for the repair of traumatic brain injury and other tissue repair therapy.