Western Tower Research Articles

Collapse of the Chirajara Cable-Stayed Bridge in Colombia

The Chirajara Bridge is part of a highway project located about 40 mi to the southeast of Bogota, Colombia. The collapsed structure was a cable-stayed bridge consisting of two diamond-shaped towers, with a main span length of 940 ft and two side spans of 262 ft. On January 15, 2018, while under construction and with only 164 ft of the floor system remaining to be constructed between the towers, the western tower suddenly collapsed, destroying that part of the bridge. The other tower remained standing, approximately in the same construction stage as the collapsed tower. Modjeski and Masters was engaged one week after the collapse to conduct a forensic investigation that included: an in situ inspection of the collapsed structure, analytical studies, an evaluation of the design, a review of the construction documentation, and testing of materials from critical structural components. Global analyses were performed to determine the loading effects in the bridge before collapse, and refined nonlinear analyses were conducted to estimate the capacity of the tower and to identify the failure mode. The investigation was concluded 4 months after the collapse and, based on the resulting data, the cause of the collapse was determined to be a deficiency in the strength of the tower. The design erroneously assumed that the reinforcing along most of the height of the diaphragm between the lower legs of the tower was effective to resist the horizontal tensile force caused by the tower’s geometry, as opposed to typical practice which utilizes a tension tie at the change in direction of the tower legs.

Ленточные свайно-столбчатые фундаменты башен в городах и острогах Сибири

Purpose. In the course of archaeological research of Russian ostrogs (wooden fortresses) in Siberia, which belong to the end of the 16th – the first half of the 18th centuries, researchers come across remains of defensive fortifications, interpretation of which is rather complicated. Such remains include traces of continuous pile and column foundations of ostrog towers. The objective of this article is to identify all known structures of this type, determine essential elements of their construction and discover the functional purpose of such a foundation. Results. In the course of archаeological research, four towers with continuous pile and column foundation were discovered, namely, a south-western tower of Umrevinskii Ostrog, one of Tobolsk towers, a south-eastern tower and a north-western tower of Udinskii Ostrog. Information on discovery of towers with such a foundation in Mangazeya was not confirmed. The existence of such a foundation under the western tower of the Sosnovskii Ostrog remains disputable. One of such towers preserved its original foundation in the town of Bel’sk (Irkutsk region) till 1987. Three towers with continuous pile and column foundations were discovered in Krasnoyarskii Ostrog in written sources. Conclusion. It is determined that all towers were located on the slope or next to it, their dimensions were considerably smaller than average ones, while their depth and thickness of logs were equal and met the same parameters of the lath fence walls. Such towers were intended first for reducing a load on unstable grounds on the slopes and next to them at the expense of small sizes of towers and secondly for preventing uneven subsidence of the tower bases, which due to a small perimeter thereof can result in a considerable lurch and subsequent collapse or damage of the structural integrity of the building.

The medieval lime mortars for carrying out dating of monuments (on the example of objects of Abkhazia of the 2-11th c.)

Results of research on development of complex techniques of chemical, petrographic, Xray phase and X-ray diffraction methods of medieval lime mortars studying are presented in the article. 12 samples from New Afon, Abkhazia have been studied. Results of analyses have confirmed estimated dates of the second defense line of Anacopia fortress foundation within 570-580 y., reconstruction of Gate tower in 910 – 930 y. and entrance gate – the 950th y. The analysis of lime mortars from screen church near Anacopia (Akuach’s temple) has given time of 650-680 y. Has been revealed that gate in citadel wall have been constructed at the end of II in AD, western tower of a citadel – 680-690 y., reconstruction of the temple of Feodor has been made in 910-930 y. Data of results of a complex research of lime mortars are supported by the documents of the Roman period (2nd century AD), the Byzantine period of the end of the 6th century, construction activity of Abkhazian archons-tsars in the VII-X centuries. The offered methods of researches allow to reconsider the developed approaches to studying of limy mortars and their dating.

Leletek Székesfehérvár középkori Szent Péter-plébániatemplomából

Archaeological excavations in 2014–2016 carried on outside the western front and in the western towers of St Stephen’s cathedral of Székesfehérvár built in the 18th century in baroque style using the remains of the mediaeval parish church as well as wall research related to the restoration of the western facade of the church have brought to light several important finds for art history. They include mediaeval tombstones, tomb lid fragments and under the floor of the northern tower details of the base strip of a gothic wall painting. The most important find is a tomb lid surviving in its entirety but crushed to pieces by the weight of the collapsing vault. The unfinished — uninscribed — stone slab placed over the grave was carved of red marble around 1415–1420, but the coat of arms represented on it cannot be associated with any person or family so far. It appears to be connected to the beginnings of the Buda workshop — and this connection particularly enhances its value — whose sculptor-entrepreneur owner was nicknamed by research, out of necessity, the Master of the Stibor tombs.

The Building of Bell-Towers Added to Romanian Churches

Abstract This paper aims to emphasize a specific aspect in the evolution of the architecture of churches built by Romanian Orthodox or Greek-Catholic communities in the Sibiu region, in the second half of the eighteenth century and during the nineteenth century. More exactly, it is the widespread presence, in the ecclesiastical architecture of that county, and also in other Romanian Transylvanian settings, of the western tower, added to the church, which housed the bells and sometimes even clocks. In most cases, the raising of these towers was entrusted to Saxon masons from Sibiu, whose names have been preserved in inscriptions on the walls of edifices, or by their registering in contracts signed by the Romanians who ordered the execution. The involvement of those worthy craftsmen represented an important factor in maintaining the dialogue and cultural exchanges between the two communities that lived together in the Sibiu County region.

Nuevo fragmento de inscripción procedente de Veleia (Iruña de Oca, Álava) con posible expresión de un magistrado local

Presentamos un nuevo fragmento de inscripción procedente del yacimiento romano deVeleia(Iruña de Oca, Álava). La inscripción fue descubierta durante los trabajos arqueológicos realizados en el cubo oeste de la puerta sur de la muralla, donde había sido reutilizada como sillar. El fragmento contiene parte de un epígrafe con una posible mención a un magistrado local. Si la hipótesis de lectura es correcta, se trataría del primer testimonio sobre la existencia deduumvirien laciuitas Veleianorum.

El refugio en altura andalusí de Vilella (Almiserat, Valencia), un ejemplo de arquitectura defensiva rural en el ámbito centro-meridional valenciano (ca. 1150-1250)

The results of the study of the small rural refuge of Vilella (Almiserat, Valencia), built in rammed earth technique in the last period of the Islamic domination in the Sharq al-Andalus, are here exposed. This work analyses the shape and the defences of the enclosure (access system and western tower) and, above all, the different types of rammed earth fabric and the building traces associated to it. It analyses as well other recorded building techniques.

From Naumburg to Burgos. European Sculpture and Dynastic Politics in the Thirteenth Century

This article tries to nuance traditional models that infer that developments in thirteenth-century Gothic sculpture be understood exclusively as emanating from the most important French cathedral workshops. Even if there are common artistic roots in Reims cathedral, the closest parallels to the sculptures erected in the 1260s in the cloister and the western towers of the cathedral of Burgos can be detected in the founders’ statues of Naumburg and Meissen, in Germany. Thus, for example, the statues of Otto I the Great and Adelheid in Meissen served as a relatively precise imperial model for the commemorative sculptures of King Ferdinand III of Castile and Beatrice of Hohenstaufen in the cloister of Burgos. The latter’s wedding in 1219 in Burgos’ old Romanesque cathedral underpinned the imperial pretensions of their son Alfonso X the Learned, who was elected Roman (German) king in Frankfurt in 1257. It has to be assumed that in the ensuing years of German-Castilian interchange a German sculptors’ workshop was employed in Burgos cathedral. Apart from the Naumburg-Meissen connection, this is confirmed by sculptural details of the Burgos cloister statues that reveal Magdeburgian origins — the missing link seemingly the sculptures of the Holy Sepulchre of Constance cathedral from c. 1260. These were commissioned by Bishop Eberhard II of Constance, head of a German legation that travelled to Burgos in 1257 to invite Alfonso the Learned to enter the Empire as the new German king.En este artículo se intenta demostrar que el modelo tradicional de explicar los desarrollos de la escultura gótica europea del siglo XIII exclusivamente como movimiento radial que emane de los talleres más importantes de las catedrales francesas, parece demasiado simple. Aunque existan raíces artísticas comunes en los talleres de escultura de la catedral de Reims, los paralelos más estrechos con las esculturas erigidas en la década de 1260 en el claustro y las torres occidentales de la catedral de Burgos se hallan en Alemania, en las estatuas de fundadores de las catedrales de Naumburgo y Meissen. Así, las estatuas de la pareja imperial de Otón I el Grande y Adelheid en Meissen sirvieron de modelo relativamente preciso para las esculturas conmemorativas de Fernando III el Santo y Beatriz de Hohenstaufen en el claustro de Burgos. Su boda de 1219, celebrada en la vieja catedral románica de Burgos, creó el fundamento de las pretensiones imperiales de su hijo Alfonso X el Sabio, que fue elegido Rey de los Romanos (de los alemanes) en Fráncfort en 1257. Hay que suponer que durante los años siguientes de intercambio entre Alemania y Castilla se empleó un taller de escultores alemanes en la catedral de Burgos. Aparte de la conexión con Naumburgo y Meissen, esto se confirma por detalles escultóricos de las estatuas del claustro de Burgos que denotan orígenes en el círculo artístico de Magdeburgo. El eslabón perdido parece ser las esculturas del Santo Sepulcro de la catedral de Constancia de hacia 1260, que muestran varias similitudes con las de Burgos. No parece casualidad que fueron encargadas por el obispo Eberhard II de Constancia, cabeza de una delegación alemana que viajó a Burgos en 1257 para invitar a Alfonso el Sabio a venir al Imperio como nuevo rey alemán.

The Architecture of the Scottish Medieval Church, 1100-1560 (review)

Reviewed by: The Architecture of the Scottish Medieval Church, 1100-1560 Malcolm Thurlby The Architecture of the Scottish Medieval Church, 1100-1560. By Richard Fawcett. (New Haven: Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art. 2011. Pp. xiv, 456. $100.00. ISBN 978-0-300-17049-8.) Over the past thirty years, Richard Fawcett's numerous publications have revolutionized our understanding of medieval church architecture in Scotland. The fruits of his brilliant research are now brought together with fine illustrations in this handsome new volume. The book opens with an introduction to church architecture in Scotland before 1100, and there follow eight chapters arranged chronologically and a conclusion on the impact of the Reformation. Comprehensive endnotes and a bibliography facilitate further study on the buildings. Fawcett's passion for architectural history exudes throughout his presentation and meticulous analysis of the buildings, and this cannot fail to be infectious for specialists and nonspecialists alike. His keen eye for detail combined with an unparalleled knowledge of the buildings and profound understanding of comparative material in Europe provides us with an unparalleled view of Scottish churches in a European context. Churches are discussed in their appropriate historical setting and, where documentation permits, in terms of their patronage. Small churches and those known only from Antiquarian sources are examined alongside the "great monuments." For twelfth-century churches Fawcett demonstrates close ties with exemplars in England, particularly Durham Cathedral and its influence on Dunfermline Abbey and Kirkwall Cathedral and several smaller churches. In the thirteenth century, Lincoln Cathedral was a favorite point of reference, as at Holyrood Abbey. Yet the Scottish churches were by no means provincial copies of English models, especially in the smaller Romanesque churches of the Northern Isles. In Orkney, the round tower at Egilsay and the twin round western towers at Deerness (now lost) are allied to northern Germany, which was then in the same ecclesiastical province. The southwest nave doorway at Whithorn Cathedral is associated with Irish Romanesque. The ambitious design of the twin-towered façade of Arbroath Abbey incorporates reticulated masonry, perhaps as an expression of royal status or even imperial aspirations, whereas the huge round window may reflect northern French models such as Laon Cathedral. Elsewhere, we encounter adventurous designs such as the huge, four-light east window with rose-window-like oculus of the east front of Kirkwall Cathedral, the west façade of Holyrood Abbey, and the variety of the plate tracery in the south choir aisle windows of Glasgow [End Page 349] Cathedral. Moreover, in the crypt of Glasgow Cathedral there are remarkable spatial innovations and complex vault patterns. Political and diplomatic ties with France and commercial links with the Low Countries account for many architectural associations from the late-fourteenth century and afterward. Especially intriguing is an inscription at Melrose Abbey that records the career of the Paris-born mason John Morow and various Scottish churches on which he worked. Fawcett establishes Morow's oeuvre and includes striking parallels with the windows of the south nave chapels at Amiens Cathedral, and tracery designs and sculptural details at Vincennes Castle Chapel just east of Paris. These and other flowing tracery designs are symptomatic of the lack of interest in the contemporary Perpendicular style of England on the part of Scottish patrons and architects. Connections with the Low Countries are manifest, as in the unusual form of the crossing piers at Aberdeen in relation to the west tower piers of Brussels Cathedral, and tracery design at King's College, Aberdeen, and Utrecht Cathedral. This book is a masterpiece and will be the starting point for all future research on medieval church architecture in Scotland. It is highly recommended as a model for all architectural historians and medievalists with an interest in ecclesiastical architecture as well as the general reader who just wants to enjoy and understand this period of Scottish heritage. Malcolm Thurlby York University, Toronto Copyright © 2012 The Catholic University of America Press

Biserica fortificată din Hosman, județul Sibiu

Abstract Hosman, in Saxon dialect - Hultsmänjen, Hultsmońen-and German-Holzmengen-belongs Nocrich common, Sibiu is located 8 km from Nocrich, 24 km from Sibiu and 36 Agnita city. In old documents the settlement is called when Holzmenia (1319) when Holzmengen (1479) names that could come from Holz = wood, charcoal = lots, is lots of wood. The fortress was built in the foothills and surrounding Romanesque church surrounded around the year 1270. At first it had three ships, an apse of the altar and belfry with five levels. Late Romanesque portal is similar to those in Avrig decoration, jerky, all influenced by the Cathedral of Alba Iulia site where German or Austrian master mason came. The church is surrounded by two walls cavities. Tower-gate, three levels high and protected by Hers is located in the northwest area where the walls meet the two chambers. Some masters or journeymen in Vienna who have not found work on site in Alba Iulia tried to earn money in the village and thus reached Hosman, where they built the great portal, modeled their home cathedral, St. Stephen in Vienna . Architectural style is Romanesque, Romanesque basilica with a western tower of the XIII century was amended according to the fifteenth century defense techniques. For it was demolished and constructed a lateral double surrounding wall. Gate tower still has the original sealing a grill falling.

Archaeological Data Concerning the History of the Evangelical Church in Dealu Frumos, Sibiu County

Most historians agree that the original planimetry of the church in Dealu Frumos consisted of a hall church with nave and two aisles, a square choir, a semicircular apse and a western tower. All these were built during the 13th century, before the Tartar Invasion. During the 14th and 15th centuries (but continued during the 16th century as well) the church undergoes major modifications that would fortify it against attacks : the western side of the aisles were dismantled in order to free the western tower, heightened and enhanced from all points of view ; the eastern side of the church was dismantled as well, here being built a second defensive tower, over the square choir. The church fortification was completed by surrounding it with an approximately elliptic curtain wall with three towers. A second enclosure on the eastern half of the ensemble and an impressive moat were also built in order to fortify the church. All these elements are meant to confer a maximum resistance to any types of attacks. The archaeological research in 2009 had three main goals : solving the problem of the existence of a semicircular apse on the eastern side of the church, which was discovered in trench 3. Trench 2 was established on the eastern wall of the western tower in order to identify the area where the original 13th century portal might have been and possible recovery of some parts of it laying underground, as well as establishing the existence of a threshold that could point to the original walking level. Traces of a semicircular portal on the elevation of the eastern wall are still visible today, but under the current walking level we have unveiled a uniform masonry, in which we could distinguish neither the northern mullion of the portal, as expected, nor the trace of any threshold. The excavation revealed a regular stone structure bound with mortar. Taking into account the different construction manner as in the naves, the logical hypothesis is that the western church wall was reconstructed at the same time when the western tower was being built. Another major goal of our research was successfully achieved : the discovery of the remains of the western aisle, dismantled at the moment of fortification. Studying the general stratigraphy revealed by the excavations we have to take into consideration the fact that the terrain was at a certain point levelled down (possibly to better protect the inner enclosure). This hypothesis is also supported by the diminished number of graves discovered here (a lot less than at other similar monuments) as well as the discovery of the improvised ossuary in the former lime pit. We have discovered a total of 19 graves, none of them providing datable material. Further research is needed in order to clarify some important aspects of the monument : the original entry into the church, complete unveiling of the remains of the semicircular apse and of the aisles, as well as establishing other stratigraphy data that would help set the evolution of the walking level during the different historic periods of the Evangelical church in Dealu Frumos.

Church of Saint-James at Leuven: Structural Assessment and Consolidation Measures

The construction of the western tower of the Church of Saint James dates to 1220. During several subsequent building phases, the Romanesque church has been replaced and extended by a church in early Gothic style. The wooden roofs in the central and side naves were replaced with masonry vaults, and flying buttresses were added. The structure itself is located on a swamp, reclaimed by the monks at the time of construction. The load-bearing capacity of the subsoil is limited, causing large differential settlements. At several occasions in the past, restoration works took place. Due to the excessive cracks observed however, it was decided in 1963 to close the church envisaging its structural collapse, to remove the severely cracked masonry vaults of the side naves and to shore up the pillars of the main nave. Additionally, in 2000, the remaining flying buttresses were removed and replaced by tie rods. The focus of this manuscript is on the structural understanding of this historical building, to determine the most appropriate strengthening and consolidation measures, respecting the authenticity of the building and preserving it for the future.

Janapolio barokas : dvaro sodybos architektūra

The article discusses the history and architecture of Janapolis estate which was not included into the academic "History of Lithuanian Architecture" and was not even listed into the register of cultural heritage during the Soviet period. The estate was established on the right bank of the Nevėžis in the 17th - 18th centuries (Anykščiai District, Traupis Circuit presently). It belonged to Upytė Pavietas in Trakai Voivode Province during the baroque period. Counts Frąckiewicz Radzimihski ruled the estate. The family was rich and influential in the Great Duchy of Lithuania. They had domains not only in Trakai but also in other voivode provinces. Janapolis was a large domain which took in a few villages and holdings. The Frąckiewich-Radziminski settled the farmstead and built a mansion there. Without doubt, it was a baroque-style residence. After the fall of the Lithuania-Poland State, a large number of debts were incurred. The estate was sold out to local noblemen in 1810. At the end of the 19th century, only the foundation of the build ing remained. Two buildings of the baroque period have remained in Janapolis. They are called differently - granaries, treasuries, pavilions, etc. They have identical octagonal volumes which are covered with curb roofs of broken form. The octagonal form could be related to the traditions of Christian art. On the other hand, the owners had probably chosen a form which had given solidity to the buildings (compare the Western Tower of Vilnius Upper Castle). High wooden sculptures of St. Michael and St. Florion decorated the roofs of the pavilions (rotted away completely at the beginning of the 20th century). There are fragments of polychrome paintings in the northwestern pavilion. Such paintings could have existed in the neighbouring building as well. There are circuit staircases which are set up within thick walls, leading to attics and cellars. Janapolis buildings are a unique property of the Lithuanian architectural heritage. They are the only baroque household buildings of estate farmstead type which have survived till the present day. The absolute majority of Lithuanian Baroque is represented by ecclesiastic buildings and palaces.

The Tradition of Detached Bell Towers at Cathedral and Monastic Churches in Medieval England and Scotland (1066–1539)

Although it is generally well-known that a number of cathedrals and major abbeys in medieval England especially had detached bell towers, the towers themselves have never been considered as a group. Nor has a ‘complete’ listing been attempted. Their existence is difficult to explain because the majority of these buildings also had central towers and some had western towers. No doubt because so many of the detached towers have been destroyed, they are less well-known than the examples on the Continent, especially in Italy. Surprisingly, towers seem to have been rare in Romanesque and Gothic France and Germany. The Insular ones appear to have been less ‘standardized’ in their design and more variable in their location vis-à-vis the church building than those of Italy. The history of detached towers in England (and Scotland) is here traced from their earliest appearance, in wood in the 12th century and in stone c. 1200, to the end of the Middle Ages.

The Tradition of Detached Bell Towers at Cathedral and Monastic Churches in Medieval England and Scotland (1066–1539)

Although it is generally well-known that a number of cathedrals and major abbeys in medieval England especially had detached bell towers, the towers themselves have never been considered as a group. Nor has a ‘complete’ listing been attempted. Their existence is difficult to explain because the majority of these buildings also had central towers and some had western towers. No doubt because so many of the detached towers have been destroyed, they are less well-known than the examples on the Continent, especially in Italy. Surprisingly, towers seem to have been rare in Romanesque and Gothic France and Germany. The Insular ones appear to have been less ‘standardized’ in their design and more variable in their location vis-à-vis the church building than those of Italy. The history of detached towers in England (and Scotland) is here traced from their earliest appearance, in wood in the 12th century and in stone c. 1200, to the end of the Middle Ages.

Western Complexes of Hungarian Churches of the Early Eleventh Century

The church organisation of Hungary under its first king, Saint Stephen (ruled between 997-1038), resulted in the building of the first monasteries (e.g. Pannonhalma),- cathedrals (e.g. Kalocsa, Veszprém and Pécs) and provostships (e.g. Székesfehérvár). These churches mostly disappeared during the centuries, but their spatial organisation can be partly reconstructed. One of their common features is the complexity of the western parts. On the one hand, various architectural types can be found (western apse with crypt, transversal mass with towers, two-tower façade), but origins of an architectural tradition can also be detected. The main element of this tradition, complementary to former research, is not the westwork, but the presence of two western towers which will be a

Westminster Abbey: Archaeological Recording at the West End of the Church

Recent recording work on the masonry of the West Front of Westminster Abbey is here described. The later medieval documentary evidence for the rebuilding of the western half of the nave (in the fourteenth, fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries) is also re-assessed and a new architectural history for the whole of the west end of the Abbey church is proposed. It is also suggested that the core of the lower fifty feet of the western towers dates from the twelfth century, and that the western porch and lower windows in the tower were added in about 1340.

Façade ou façades romanes? [Discours de clôture

The paper begins with a comparison between the Carolingian opus occidentale at Corvey and the façade of the Romanesque pilgrimage church at Borgo San Donnino in order to show the contrast between an early medieval abbey church which seems closed at its Western end and a sanctuary from the twelfth century which invites the pilgrims to enter. Romanesque façades cannot be successfully studied without taking into consideration their original context : history, local topography and liturgy. There exists no unified type of the Romanesque façade in Europe. Bulky Western towers or closed Western fronts survive right in the thirteenth century especially in the Empire. Also in the Empire the persistance of the groundplan with a double choir excludes the construction of a Western façade. Local topography fixes the placement of the main entrances to the great sanctuaries, to the tomb of the saints, often outside the Western façade. Examples are the cathedral at Santiago of Compostela or Saint-Sernin at Toulouse. In the Romanesque period the central part of the entrance into the church becomes the figure-portal with an elaborated iconographie program addressing the faithful and the pilgrims. But such portals are often found not on the exterior façade but in the interior of a narthex (Cluny, Vézelay). Portals could serve different functions : they could be stations for monastic processions, they could enhance the access to a great relic but also overshadow a cemetery as at Autun. In the light of these examples, differences and deviations the screen-façades of Western France, which are perhaps the most perfect examples of an ideal Romanesque façade, must be rather regarded as a splendid exception.

Le portail du XIIe siècle de Saint-Germain-des-Prés à Paris: état de la question et nouvelles recherches

This article is about the state of research of the west portal of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris. In the course of restoration work on the western tower and portal, the back side of the mid-twelfth-century lintel of the west portal was uncovered. The newly revealed face shows a first version of the lintel subject, The Last Supper, which was abandoned during the early stages of carving. This unfinished scene is one of the rare examples of early Gothic sculpture that reveals several stages of carving a relief. Much less finished than the "Crosby relief" at Saint-Denis, the back face of the Saint Germain-des-Prés lintel is an invaluable record of several of the early stages of execution, ranging from the simplest outline on the surface to nearly complete figures. This exciting new discovery provides the occasion for examining all of the documentation concerning the portal including the lost statue-columns.

A unique facade in Great Britain: the west front of Holyrood Abbey

The early Gothic façade of Holyrood Abbey was originally distinguished by two large towers. Although many large churches built in the British Isles during the previous (12th) century had two western towers, they were generally built over the westernmost bays of the nave aisles. In the case of a few buildings dating to the later 12th and early 13th centuries, the towers flanked the last bays of the aisles, thereby creating a wide 'screen' fagade. The position of the towers at Holyrood was distinctly different from either of these types. The towers were placed both outside the line of the aisle walls and in front of the plane of the west wall: they were tangent to the corners of the aisles by only one of their corners. As a result, a shallow open space was created between them, in front of the west portal. In this regard, Holyrood appears to have been exceptional in the British Isles. The closest parallels for this arrangement are found at several churches on the Continent which are widely separated geographically and, as a group, without any obvious connection with each other. The unusual system of passageways within the west front of Holyrood also further contributes to its unique character.