Western Missionaries Research Articles

서양 선교사들의 粵方言 학습교재를 통해 살펴본 19세기 전후 홍콩의 기후 상황

서양 선교사들의 粵方言 학습교재를 통해 살펴본 19세기 전후 홍콩의 기후 상황

Do Black Lives Matter in Post-Brexit Britain?

This article speaks to existential challenges facing Black people, predominantly of Caribbean descent, to live in what continues to be a White dominated and White entitled society. Working against the backdrop of the ‘Black Lives Matter’ movement that originated in the United States, this article analyses the socio-political and cultural frameworks that affirm Whiteness whilst concomitantly, denigrating Blackness. The author, a well-known Black liberation theologian, who is a child of the Windrush Generation, argues that Western Mission Christianity has always exemplified a deep-seated form of anti-Blackness that has helped to shape the agency of Black bodies, essentially marking them as ‘less than’. This theological base has created the frameworks that have dictated the sematic belief that Black bodies do not really matter and if they do, then they are invariably second-class ones when compared to White bodies. In the final part of the article, the author outlines the ways in which Black theology in Britain, drawing on postcolonial theological and biblical optics, has sought to critique the ethnocentrism of White Christianity in Britain in order to assert that ‘Black Lives Do Matter’.

Family can endure what partnership cannot: A consideration of historical, cultural, and newly arising barriers to missions in China

Relationships between American mission organizations and Chinese house church pastors are currently facing increasing difficulty and strain. To date, the dominant metaphor for how these two members of Christ’s body have related has been partnership. Rising contextual and cultural pressures render partnership inadequate to withstand what familial bonds are more suited to endure. This article first considers the overall historical and cultural context of the relationship between western missionaries and unregistered Chinese churches. Following this is an explanation of two recurring factors which place ongoing strain on their relationship: rising nationalism and government persecution of Christians. Next, new factors which compound existing relational stressors are explored: shifting economic policies and theological brain drain. Finally, initial recommendations are put forth as to how these two groups might move forward living together as family.

Conceptualizing and contextualizing with and beyond Paul Hiebert’s anthropological models: Toward a contextual trinitarian missiology in Myanmar

The purpose of this article is threefold. First, it explores Hiebert’s critiques of western missionaries’ wrong conceptualizations of non-westerners and their non-contextualization and his proposals for the double exegesis of human cultures and the gospel. Second, the article appreciatively and critically evaluates Hiebert’s approaches. Finally, the article conceptualizes cultures and contextualizes the gospel with and beyond Hiebert’s anthropological models and constructs a contextual trinitarian missiology as the middle ground between cultural anthropology and systematic theology in Myanmar. Thinking with and beyond Hiebert, the article examines three missiological models of how to rightly conceptualize and humbly approach human cultures, and explore the goals of right conceptualizations and humble approaches as the trinitarian grounds and guides for contextualizing the gospel as “good news” for both Christians and others in Myanmar.

The Encounter Between Christianity and Asante Culture: Impact and Repercussions

The Asante Traditional Religion was in existence and the home of many Asantes long before Western missionaries introduced Christianity and Islam into Asanteman. The Asantes believe in the Supreme Being, spirits, ancestral veneration and life after death. However, with the introduction of Christianity and Western education, Western missionaries condemned Asante culture and religion and taught Asantes to abandon their culture and religion, and convert into Christianity. Some Asantes who converted into Christianity were asked to imbibe Western European culture and religion and to become like Western Europeans in thought and action. They were to assume the names of European saints and abandon some of their traditional names and practices which were considered pagan. Christian rites of passage were introduced to replace the time-tested Asante rites of passage. With the introduction of Christianity and Western education, many young Asante converts abandoned their culture and traditional religion and adopted the Western European culture and religion as a way of life. Even though official Church teachings and documents urged European missionaries to be Asantes with Asantes, some missionaries still abandoned caution and judged the Asante converts from the perspective of a European worldview.The author conducted a doctoral research in 2017 at Ejisu Juaben Municipality among three selected Churches, namely, the Roman Catholic Church, the Methodist Church Ghana and the Church of Pentecost using 377 respondents and nine purposive in-depth interviews. The study also reviewed existing literature available on the subject. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences software for Windows, version 23 was used to analyse the data. Majority of respondents agreed that early Western missionaries provided formal education, health care and charitable services to the needy in the municipality. However, they also admitted that the early Western missionaries interfered with Asante culture and considered Asante Traditional Religion as pagan. The early Western missionaries were unable to study the language and culture of the Asantes and so could not penetrate the deep-rooted traditional Asante culture and religion. This paper proposes that Christian missionaries should synthesise the Christian message with Asante culture in order to win the heart of the Asante convert into Christianity. Keywords: Encounter, Christianity, Asante culture, Asante Traditional Religion DOI : 10.7176/JPCR/42-04 Publication date :March 31 st 2019

“To Promote the Cause of Christ's Kingdom”: International Student Associations and the “Revival” of Middle Eastern Christianity

This article traces the presence in the Arab world of international Christian student organizations like the World Student Christian Federation (WSCF) and its intercollegiate branches of the YMCA and YWCA associated with the Protestant missionary movement in nineteenth-century Beirut. There, an American-affiliated branch of the YMCA emerged at Syrian Protestant College in the 1890s, and the Christian women's student movement formed in the early twentieth century after a visit from WSCF secretaries John Mott and Ruth Rouse. As such, student movements took on lives of their own, and they developed in directions that Western missionary leaders never anticipated. By attending to the ways in which the WSCF and YMCA/YWCA drew Arabs into the global ecumenical movement, this study examines the shifting aims of Christian student associations in twentieth-century Syria and Lebanon, from missionary-supported notions of evangelical revival to ecumenical renewal and interreligious movements for national reform.

Western Missionaries and Korean Teaching Method in the 19th Century – Gouin direct teaching method in the 『韓國學彙報 Korean Repository』 –

Western Missionaries and Korean Teaching Method in the 19th Century – Gouin direct teaching method in the 『韓國學彙報 Korean Repository』 –

Протестанты и неопротестанты постсоветского Дагестана: трансформация ценностных ориентиров в миссионерских практиках (1990—2000-е гг.)

The transformation in Protestants’ and neo-Protestants’ values in their missionary practices in the modern Dagestan is discussed. It is noted that the processes of globalization caused by the international situation, the unfolding socio-economic, political and spiritual depression in the country contributed to the “influx” of Western missionaries and the emergence of new non-traditional charismatic churches, allowing them to occupy its niche in republic religious structure for some time. On the basis of sociological survey the analysis of value views of the Dagestan Protestants in their Evangelical mission is carried out. It is shown that the religious well-being of the adepts of the studied communities is focused on proselytizing and missionary activity among the carriers of the other worldview. It is established that the Dagestan Protestants positively evaluate proselytism with the motivation for its non-violent and peaceful propagation while simultaneously ignoring the possibility of aggravation of inter-religious and inter-ethnic relations. It is revealed that the respondents have different points of view on the promotion of their faith among representatives of other religions. The authors conclude that, on the one hand, the proclamation of the principles of freedom of choice of a religious worldview, on the other - the aim to emphasize the exclusivity of their beliefs with the motivation of its “perfection and correctness” allow to make conclusion about the contradictory nature of the respondents’ opinions.

The Concept of “Asia” in the Context of Modern China

As a part of the geographical knowledge introduced by Matteo Ricci from the West into China at the beginning of the 17th century, the concept of “Asia” had undergone a cool reception for over three hundred years and did not become a common idea of world geography until the early 20th century when it was publicized by textbooks and other mass media. As the author points out, Asia is not merely a geographical concept, but also refers to history, culture, and politics. Although early Western missionaries and Chinese scholar-officials like Wei Yuan endowed Asia with a positive meaning as the origin of world civilization, from the mid-19th century on, Chinese intellectuals, out of a sense of crisis caused by the European invasion of Asia, tended to describe Asia as a backward continent subjugated by the white people. In the 1910s, against the background of Japan’s annexation of Korea, Asia was divided into two opposing parts, “the country invading other countries” (Japan) and “the countries being invaded by other countries” (India, Korea, and China). Along with the occupation of other Asian countries by Japan in the name of “the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere” in the 1930s and 1940s, the concept of Asia also lost its charm among Chinese nationals.

К истории вопроса распространения протестантизма на Корейском полуострове в конце XIX – начале XX века

This paper presents a multilateral analysis of the penetration process of Protestantism on the Korean Peninsula. For the first time in Russian historiography, the methods of missionary activity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were studied. Using these techniques, Western missionaries instilled their teachings not only in China and Japan, but also with even greater success in Korea. Protestant and especially Presbyterian missionary centers, created during the period of the political and economic turmoil, became a shelter for the lower strata of Korean society. Thanks to them, numerous schools and hospitals appeared. Korean youth, regardless of gender and origin, had the opportunity to receive elementary general education and English lessons along with Bible study

A Study on the Meaning of “ChunRoYukJung” Written by Western Missionary and “ChunRoYukJung-the

A Study on the Meaning of “ChunRoYukJung” Written by Western Missionary and “ChunRoYukJung-the

Translation and transmutation: the Origin of Species in China.

Darwinian ideas were developed and radically transformed when they were transmitted to the alien intellectual background of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century China. The earliest references to Darwin in China appeared in the 1870s through the writings of Western missionaries who provided the Chinese with the earliest information on evolutionary doctrines. Meanwhile, Chinese ambassadors, literati and overseas students contributed to the dissemination of evolutionary ideas, with modest effect. The 'evolutionary sensation' in China was generated by the Chinese Spencerian Yan Fu's paraphrased translation and reformulation of Thomas Huxley's 1893 Romanes Lecture 'Evolution and ethics' and his 'Prolegomena'. It was from this source that 'Darwin' became well known in China - although it was Darwin's name, rather than his theories, that reached Chinese literati's households. The Origin of Species itself began to receive attention only at the turn of the twentieth century. The translator, Ma Junwu (1881-1940), incorporated non-Darwinian doctrines, particularly Lamarckian and Spencerian principles, into his edition of the Chinese Origin. This partially reflected the importance of the pre-existing Chinese intellectual background as well as Yan Fu's progressive 'evolutionary paradigm'. In this paper, I will elucidate Ma Junwu's culturally conditioned reinterpretation of the Origin before 1906 by investigating his transformation of Darwin's principal concepts.

Understanding the worldview of hinduism for evangelism purposes

Introduction.- In the year of 1894, the Adventist message was first introduced in Hindu country India. Since, then thousands of missionaries have been sent to Asian countries like India, Nepal, Maldives, and Bangladesh but very few results have been accomplished. Many missionaries and Missionary Institutions have come to the realization that the work is very challenging to this specific group of people. In order to reach them and to know how they think and perceive things it is vital to understand their worldview. Objective.- Having mentioned the above problem, this research tends to contribute in unders- tanding the worldview of Hinduism. Only if we understand their worldview, we will be able to relate with them, and will be able to explain things in a way that both parties understands with less possibilities of being misunderstood. Methodology.- In order to make it happen, this research followed thematic methodology, first planted the problematic issues, explained the antecedents, and found solutions of the problem. Results.- Found some elements that could serve as a bridge for religious dialogues with Hin- dus. When the oriental world is crying for medical assistant, medical missionary work would serve as a medium to touch their hearts, other elements that has to deal with salvation, grace, and the identity of the savior of the world is revealed using their own sacred scriptures. Conclusions.- Investigation reached to the following conclusions: First, Understanding the worldview of any group of people, or individual helps to relate and reach them. Second, Christ’s method alone will work as incredible method to reach the unreached Hindus, most of the Hin- dus people have prejudice about the western missionaries but if Christ Method was followed and if we seek nothing but their good, surely they will open their hearts for truth. Third, some elements have been found in their sacred books where it reveals about the Identity of Jesus Christ and presents Him as the redeemer of the world.

Shame/Honor, Guilt/Innocence, Fear/Power: A Missiological Response to Simon Cozens and Geoff Beech

There has been a significant increased interest among academic missiologists and mission practitioners in applying the concepts of shame/honor, guilt/innocence, and to a lesser extent fear/power, in cross-cultural ministry. This article responds to Simon Cozens’s and Geoff Beech’s contributions and notes the weaknesses of characterizing entire cultures as oriented to shame, guilt, or fear. Despite the caution of overgeneralization and stereotyping, there are some strengths in these concepts, which have been helpful in cross-cultural ministry. They should also be used to enable Western missionaries to discover the weaknesses and blind spots in their own ministry, biblical interpretations, and theology.

Signs, Tokens, and Points of Contact: Religious Symbolism and Sacramentality in Non-Western Christianity

The development of Christianity as a non-Western religion since the middle of the 20th century has generated changes that distinguish it from the expressions of faith inherited from the West. Christian religious innovation and new ways of expressing the faith have become the hallmarks of African Christianity. One way in which these religious changes are discernible is the use of “signs and tokens”, that is, physical substances that in the hands of religious functionaries acquire a sacramental value and that for example serves as support to the sorts of interventionist ministries associated with Pentecostal/charismatic ministries. A classic example of the new sacramental substances is the widespread use of the anointing oil. The anointing oil has become an important “point of contact” in African Christian rituals of healing and supernatural interventions. The use of oil for anointing is not necessarily new in the historic Christian traditions. However, in contemporary African Christianity, it has been reinvented and instituted in healing and deliverance and exorcism rituals that go beyond what was familiar in the older religious traditions. In this essay, we reflect on new sacraments also re-designated as signs and tokens such as the reinvention of the anointing oil as a therapeutic substance in contemporary forms of African Christianity. The new ritual order and the perception of sacraments as therapeutic substances helps us to understand what non-Western Christians, through popular religious innovations, consider important in a faith whose liturgical standards were originally set by Western missionaries.

明淸 시기 중국에서 활동한 서양 선교사들의 자료를 통해 본 언어관 小考

明淸 시기 중국에서 활동한 서양 선교사들의 자료를 통해 본 언어관 小考

Consuming missionary legacies in contemporary China: Eric Liddell and evolving interpretations of Chinese Christian history

As a significant theme running through China’s modern history, Christianity’s inglorious role has helped redefine the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) self-proclaimed role as the liberator of the long-suffering nation from imperialist forces. The association between missionaries and Western imperialism has predominated the Chinese communist historiography. Nevertheless, recent years have witnessed a burgeoning movement to reinvent China’s Christian past and reconstruct historical memories of stigmatized missionaries. This article suggests that local governments in China are increasingly recognizing value in the history of Chinese–missionary encounters. This is evident in how local authorities have organized and promoted commemorative activities for Scottish missionary and Olympic champion Eric Liddell (1902–45). In presenting the case of Liddell, this article reveals how the Chinese government takes the initiative in consuming historical memories of Western missionaries, and finds instrumental value in the legacy of such figures despite their religious connections.

Rethinking the Great Commission: Incorporation of Akan Indigenous Symbols into Christian Worship

AbstractSymbols are communicative tools with performative functions in all cultures. Apart from their decorative functions, non‐Christian symbols adopted into Christianity have had a tremendous impact on Christian life since the early times, especially in liturgical practices. Through Western missionary activities, Ghana inherited Christian biblical‐liturgical art as has been developed in the home countries of the missionaries. However, since the 1960s Adinkra symbols have been incorporated into Christian worship and theology, receiving attention within secular and religious circles because of their communicative potential. On the religious level, some churches have adopted them as logos or incorporated them into architectural designs and liturgical art. This paper seeks to investigate what motivates various missions to choose particular Adinkra symbol(s) and what they hope to achieve with them. Furthermore, it attempts a theological reflection on the communicative potential of artefacts in Ghanaian Christianity as a response to the “Great Commission. “We approach the subject from a historical, contextual, and theological perspective, using selected Roman Catholic and Methodist churches in Ghana as case studies. The study employed unstructured in‐depth interviews and photo elicitations to trace the relationship between visual arts and religion, with particular emphasis on Christian visual arts and how they have informed Christianity in Ghana.

‘My Own House, Car, My Husband, and Children’: meanings of success among Ghanaians

The purpose of the study was to explore the extent to which contemporary social, economic, and religious developments inform social constructions of success in Ghana. Participants, consisting of 21 females and 39 males, aged between 20 and 70, from different educational and occupational backgrounds were interviewed about what they consider as success. Participants belonged to either Traditionally Western Mission Churches or Charismatic Christian denominations and were selected from three regions of Ghana. Thematic analysis revealed four dimensions of success: (1) Social (including marriage, children, social recognition, and social contribution to society); (2) Material (comprising meeting basic needs; economic independence; material wealth); (3) Educational; and (4) Religious (e.g., God's work, relationship with God). Three pathways to success were also observed in the data: (a) Divine blessings; (b) Adaptability; and (c) Striving. Discussion focuses on social, policy, counselling, and research implications.

The concepts and methods of Western Chinese learning in the early period: A study based on Spanish missionary Francisco Varo’s Arte de la lengua Mandarina

Spanish missionary Francisco Varo (1627-1678) is a pioneer in the history of Western and Chinese cross-cultural communication and Chinese Linguistics. His work Arte de la lengua Mandarina (Grammar of the Mandarin Language, written in 1682 and published in 1703) is not only one of the earliest Chinese grammar books officially published, but also a Chinese language teaching material especially designed for western missionaries. Its significance for the studies of the history of Chinese linguistics and social-culture has aroused concerns in the academic circle over last decade. However, its enlightening meanings as a Chinese second language textbook is undervalued. From the view of second language teaching, this paper discusses the language teaching concepts and methods of the early western Chinese learners reflected in the book and discloses its implications to the international Chinese language education at present.