Southwestern Coast Of Korea Research Articles

A study on salt produce system in the late choson dynasty

조선 후기에 있어서 소금은 바닷물을 농축하여 끓이는 자염(煮鹽)을 위주로 하여 생산하였다. 자염을 하기 위해서는먼저 염전을 포함한 염장(鹽場)을 설치하여야 한다. 그런데 염장을 설치하자면 우선 근처에 연료가 풍부하여야 유리하였다. 아울러 주변에 넓고 평탄한 갯벌이 있어야 하고, 굴과 같은 조개류가 많으면 더욱 좋았다. 여기에 더하여 수륙 교통이 편리하다면 염장의 생산성은 보다 높아졌던 것이다. 염장에는 몇 가지 시설을 갖추어야 생산이 제대로 이루어질 수 있었다. 그것은 부옥과 함수고, 그리고 염부 및 염창등이다. 아울러 염전 주변으로 수로와 도로가 정비되어 진다면 더욱 유리하였다. 자염을 생산하는 주요한 과정은 먼저염전 갈기이다. 이것은 염전 위에 산포한 토사를 몇 차례 갈아엎어 염분 함량이 높은 함수(鹹水)를 만드는데 필요하였다. 이렇게 생산된 함수를 함수고에 저장하면서 염부에 넣고 달이면, 자염 즉 소금이 만들어졌던 것이다. 부산 명지도 염전의 특징은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 염전까지 수로를 연결하여 현대 염전의 증발지에 바닷물을 공급하듯이 급수가 용이하게 되었다. 둘째, 증발지 형태의 염전으로, 염전 내부에 작은 저수지를 규칙적으로 많이 만들어 해수가 많이 증발하도록 하였다. 이 방법은 조선후기 전통 염전방식과는 판이하게 다르다. 이 방식은 ‘쇄염법(曬鹽法)’의 한방법으로 보다 발전된 형태이다. 셋째, 증발지의 신설로 섯(간수통)이 소멸되었다. 넷째, 함수고가 염전 주위에 많이 설치되었다. 염전의 함수를 1차로 모으고, 이를 인력으로 다시 소금가마 옆의 함수고로 운반하였다.Salt production was very important place in the economy of traditional korea. it is generally produced by boiling sea water, in the late Choson dynasty, that is from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. This was period of rapid social change and economic development, and the metamorphosis of korean economy and society stimulated salt industry. sea water was kept in salt fields for evaporation, it helped keep the hours of boiling and hence the amount of fuel. other factors included the convenience transportation and salt pot with salt store house and so forth. but the crucial factor in deciding the locality of salt fields was the availability of fuel. this study attempts to delineate the main features of salt industry in the late choson period. the raw material of salt was brine obtained from the sea. the government encouraged the salt production. the shortage of the fuel for salt was filled up by the government. the availability of fuel was the crucial factor in deciding the locality of salt fields. other factors included the convenience of transportation and the adequacy of soil type. Consequently, the salt fields heavily concentrated along the southwestern coast of Korea.

Sedimentological and ichnological characteristics on macrotidal Baeksu tidal shoreface, southwestern coast of Korea

Integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic studies along the Baeksu coast of southwestern Korea have revealed that despite the macrotidal conditions, the morphologic characteristics and preserved deposits of the intertidal flats show strong similarities to those commonly reported from wave-dominated shorefaces. Morphologically, a beachface is developed near the high-tide level, which is backed by the high-tide mud flat and fronted by the extensive intertidal shoreface (sensu Dashtgard et al., 2021), where wave-formed swash bars are present. Although sedimentation is strongly influenced by seasonal winds and waves, the preserved deposits conspicuously comprise abundant storm beds that consist mainly of wave-rippled and hummocky cross-stratified sands, because summer muds are typically ephemeral. The storm beds, which are predominant and thick near the low-tide line, become thinner in a landward direction, due to the progressive dissipation of wave-energy by bottom friction. Such physical processes, exerted on tidal-shoreface sedimentation, are also reflected in the ichnofacies distribution, showing that distal expressions of the Skolithos Ichnofacies characterize the lower intertidal zone and are replaced landward by proximal expressions of the Cruziana Ichnofacies. Except for the low-BI beachface (BI 0–1), the intensities of bioturbation generally increase in a landward direction (BI 0–1 to BI 3–4), in correspondence with the physical-energy distribution.The study area reveals that the sedimentological and ichnological characteristics commonly employed to recognize wave-dominated shoreface settings (even including high-wave-energy tidal-shoreface counterparts) apparently show a reverse trend within the intertidal shoreface, probably overlying the normal-trend, subtidal shoreface. Although these findings have not been broadly tested, we, however, believe that these features are representative of the low-energy end of the full spectrum of wave-dominated coastal settings.

Monthly variations in macroalgal flora and community structure in Hampyong Bay, Southwestern Coast of Korea

Monthly variations in macroalgal flora and community structure in Hampyong Bay, Southwestern Coast of Korea

Characterizing the origins of dissolved organic carbon in coastal seawater using stable carbon isotope and light absorption characteristics

Abstract. In order to determine the origins of dissolved organic matter (DOM) occurring in the seawater of Sihwa Lake, we measured the stable carbon isotope ratios of dissolved organic carbon (DOC-δ13C) and the optical properties (absorbance and fluorescence) of DOM in two different seasons (March 2017 and September 2018). Sihwa Lake is enclosed by a dike along the western coast of South Korea, and the water is exchanged with the Yellow Sea twice a day through the sluice gates. The DOC concentrations were generally higher in lower-salinity waters in both periods, and excess of DOC was also observed in 2017 in high-salinity waters. Here, the excess DOC represents any DOC concentrations higher than those in the incoming open-ocean seawater. The excess DOC occurring in the lower-salinity waters originated mainly from marine sediments of tidal flats, based on the DOC-δ13C values (-20.7±1.2 ‰) and good correlations among the DOC, humic-like fluorescent DOM (FDOMH), and NH4+ concentrations. However, the origins of the excess DOC observed in 2017 appear to be from two different sources: one mainly from marine sources such as biological production based on the DOC-δ13C values (−19.1 ‰ to −20.5 ‰) and the other mainly from terrestrial sources by land–seawater interactions based on its depleted DOC-δ13C values (−21.5 ‰ to −27.8 ‰). This terrestrial DOM source observed in 2017 was likely associated with DOM on the reclaimed land, which experienced extended exposure to light and bacterial degradation as indicated by the higher spectral slope ratio (SR) of light absorbance and no concurrent increases in the FDOMH and NH4+ concentrations. Our study demonstrates that the combination of these biogeochemical tools can be a powerful tracer of DOM sources and characteristics in coastal environments.

Antioxidant, Pancreatic Lipase Inhibitory, and Tyrosinase Inhibitory Activities of Extracts of the Invasive Plant Spartina anglica (Cord-Grass).

Since 2016, the invasive halophyte Spartina anglica has been colonizing mudflats along the western coast of South Korea. In order to minimize costs on S. anglica expansion management and waste-treatment of collected biomass, the potential application of the collected biomass of S. anglica was investigated. Ethanolic extracts and subfractions thereof (hexanes, methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, 1-butanol, and water-soluble) of the aerial and belowground parts of S. anglica showed free radical-scavenging [2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS)], tyrosinase inhibitory, and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities. An ethyl acetate fraction derived from aerial parts (EA-a) showed the most potent radical-scavenging and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities, whereas tyrosinase inhibition was mainly observed in the methylene chloride soluble fractions (MC-bg) and other lipophilic fractions (ethyl acetate and hexanes layers) obtained from belowground parts. The major EA-a compound isolated and identified was 1,3-di-O-trans-feruloyl quinic acid (1) based on spectroscopic analysis, whereas the two major MC-bg compounds were identified as p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (2) and N-trans-feruloyltyramine (3). Compounds 1 and 3 scavenged both DPPH and ABTS radicals, whereas 1 and 2 inhibited pancreatic lipase activity. These results indicate that extracts and fractions of S. anglica have antioxidant, anti-obesity, and whitening properties with potential pharmaceutical, cosmeceutical, and functional food applications.

Population Dynamics of the ‘Golden Tides’ Seaweed, Sargassum horneri, on the Southwestern Coast of Korea: The Extent and Formation of Golden Tides

Since 2015, troublesome masses of floating Sargassum horneri have been introduced via ocean currents and winds to the southwestern coastline of Korea, including Jeju Island. These massive mats have caused considerable damage to the aquaculture industry, tourism, and the marine ecosystem. Most previous studies of S. horneri have focused on cultivation, the development of gene markers, and photosynthetic activity, but few data on population dynamics are available. We investigated the population dynamics of native S. horneri off the southwestern coast of Korea with the aim of predicting the formation of golden tides. Populations at two sites had obligate annual life cycles. Thalli were recruited during the period September–November, grew during the period December–April, and senesced by July. This pattern reflected seasonal trends in water temperature. Specific growth rates and heights of the thalli at Munseom were significantly higher than those at Jindo. The greatest environmental difference between the two sites is probably the degree of exposure to wave action. Mortality density (thalli lost per unit area) in the Munseom population was highest during the period December–January (i.e., 2–3 months after recruitment) and in March. Most thalli in the Jindo population died off in July when water temperatures increased. The maximum average biomass of S. horneri thalli detaching from the substrata reached 1.6 kg fresh weight m–2 during January and March. Thus, large-scale drifting mats were formed by S. horneri detachment from the substrata. Despite the differences in space and environment between China and Korea, our findings will enable quantitative assessments of the overall floating Sargassum biomass in the East China and Yellow Seas.

Mineralogical Characteristics and Physico-Chemical Properties of a Newly Reclaimed Tidal Flat of Haenam Bay in the Southwestern Coast of Korea

The aim of this investigation was to identify the soil physical and chemical properties and the mineralogies of recently reclaimed tidal flat land (RTFL) consisted of five different soil series within the investigation site located in Youngsan-river Bay of Southwestern coast in Korea, that has to be only used as upland according to the policy of designated absolute agricultural land. The results show that the soil textures of the soil horizons are sandy loam and silt loam for all five soil series, with typical soil colors of yellow to pale yellow for Ap horizons containing higher clay content greater (> 18%) and greenish gray containing higher sand content (> 60%). The pHs of surface horizons for Bokchun (BC), Junbook (JB) and Poseung (PS) soil series are not only acidic (< 4.5) but also soil color is dark brown with reddish brown mottles. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses represent the major minerals are illite, kaolinite and quartz for BC, JB and PS soil series while quartz and illite are major minerals for Taehan (TH) and Gwangpo (GP) soil series. Silicon and aluminum dominant in the Ap and Bg horizons are significantly higher in the soil series of BC, JB and PS than those in TH and GP. Also, we found that the kaolinite particles of varying sizes are arranged in face-to-face patterns along with the presence of spherical particles of quartz, especially in BC, JB and PS. Index map and Locations of soil profile investigation pits and soil sampling points for five soil series within the experimental site at the RTFS within the Haenam Bay. Numerous dendritic streams on the wide tidal flat and main tidal channel (maximum depth of 25 m) comprise the coastal embayment.

Changes of Sedimentary Environment in the Tidal Flat of the Dammed Yeongsan River Estuary, Southwestern Coast of Korea

Changes of Sedimentary Environment in the Tidal Flat of the Dammed Yeongsan River Estuary, Southwestern Coast of Korea

Distribution of Organic Matter and Heavy Metals in the Surface Sediments from Fishery Resources Protection Areas in the Southwestern Coast of Korea

Distribution of Organic Matter and Heavy Metals in the Surface Sediments from Fishery Resources Protection Areas in the Southwestern Coast of Korea

A Study on the Applicability of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles to the Sounding Survey of Tidelands

Jeong, S.-H.; Kwon, J.H., and Kim, J.H., 2019. A study on the applicability of unmanned aerial vehicle to the sounding survey of tidelands. In: Lee, J.L.; Yoon, J.-S.; Cho, W.C.; Muin, M., and Lee, J. (eds.), The 3rd International Water Safety Symposium. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 91, pp. 436-440. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.The southwestern coast of Korea is characterized as a complex ria coast with a wide tideland. In this area, information on the minimum low water level is important for ship safety. While using aerial photographs and satellite images to measure the water depth of a tideland is expensive for smaller areas, using echo sound does not guarantee a precise measurement because it is difficult for ships to reach such areas. This study aims to verify the applicability of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to the sounding survey of a tideland by comparing the results of a UAV survey with those of a single beam survey. The study was conducted in and around Seohong-ri, Haenam-gun, and Jeollanam-do by using an unmanned fixed-wing aerial vehicle with a 24.36-megapixel camera to take pictures at an overlap rate of 60 % ∼ 80 % from an altitude of 110 m ∼ 150 m. Ground control points (GCPs) were installed at intervals of 500 m with three checkpoints. The GCP locations were determined using Network-RTK. In the photographs, GCPs and checkpoints were matched to create DSM and orthophotos. The root mean square error in the GCP of an orthophoto was X = 0.0085 m, Y = 0.0091 m, and Z = 0.0027 m. On comparing the overlapped parts, the water depth error was found to be 0 m ∼ 0.1 m on a verage, satisfying the special grade criterion of tolerance by waterway survey depth and confirming the applicability of unmanned aerial vehicles to the sounding survey of tidelands. It was possible to draw the coastline by correcting the tide to the orthophoto and depth values. Using GSD 5 cm images obtained from the unmanned aerial vehicle, it was possible to precisely describe the coastline and confirm changes in the coastline.

Current Policy and Technology for Tidal Current Energy in Korea

As global energy consumption continues to increase, the negative impact of global warming also grows. Therefore, eco-friendly energy policy is being established all over the world. Korea’s energy consumption problems are further complicated by the country’s high dependence on energy sourced overseas. Korean energy policy is evolving rapidly to address these problems. Korea has begun to phase out nuclear power and is focusing on developing new sources of renewable energy. So there has been substantial interest in the development of ocean energy. Of all ocean energy technologies, tidal current energy is the closest to the commercialization. Especially, the southwestern coast of Korea is the most promising candidate site for the development of tidal current energy owing to the abundant tidal current energy resource. Meanwhile, ocean energy policy is an important factor in determining the development of ocean energy. Thus, this paper presents the overview of the current status of policy and technology for the tidal current energy system in Korea. These policies explained in this paper can provide significant interest and motivation for the use of tidal current energy resources.

서남해 도서지역의 지질 및 지형경관

서남해 도서지역의 지질 및 지형경관

서남해안 해상여객운송 활성화를 위한 해상택시 도입 연구

서남해안 해상여객운송 활성화를 위한 해상택시 도입 연구

Assessment of Tidal Current Energy Potential at Uldolmok in the Southwestern Coast of Korea

ABSTRACT Ko, D.H.; Park, J.-S., and Lee, K.-S., 2018. Assessment of tidal current energy potential at Uldolmok in the southwestern coast of Korea. In: Shim, J.-S.; Chun, I., and Lim, H.S. (eds.), Proceedings from the International Coastal Symposium (ICS) 2018 (Busan, Republic of Korea). Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 85, pp. 1301–1305. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Quantitative assessment for the tidal current energy potential and marine conditions should be preceded to construct the optimal tidal energy farm. Assessment of tidal energy resource at Uldolmok which is the optimal candidate sites for tidal energy farm was carried out. In order to collect the field data, static survey using ADCP(Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler) was conducted and harmonic analysis was done to predict the annual tidal current. As a result, the dominant direction of ebb current was southeast and flood current was northwest. The maximum ebb current speed was about 4.09 m/s. While, annual power density...

Estimation of primary production of the waters around rack oyster farm at Wando, Korea

To establish a comprehensive management strategy, as part of the optimization of cultural practice for an oyster rack culture system, we used a numerical model to estimate the primary production in the waters on the eastern coast of Wando island, South Korea. The estimated primary production ranged from 17.12 to 1052.55 mgC m−2 day−1 (204.22 ± 224.75 mgC m−2 day−1 in average). Except for the times of peak phytoplankton blooms, the estimated primary production (PP) was consistently under 200 mgC m−2 day−1, which is more similar to the value of PP measured off the western coast of South Korea than the southern coast. No clear relationship was observed between nitrogen content and rainfall with the exception of heavy rainfall events, indicating that precipitation might not be the main source of nutrients in these waters. No clear influence was observed from Doam tidal discharge, located 24 km north from these waters due to main tide comes in this area from the channel between Gunwe-myeon in Wando island and Pukpyeong-myeon in Haenam-gun. Because of the shallow water depth and strong tidal current, resuspension of sediments, which causes an input of nitrogen into the system, could be easily caused by even mild wind and the infrequent passing of ships. Microscopic examination of the phytoplankton composition showed additional contribution of benthic species such as Paralia sulcata into the waters, which increase the productivity of oyster farms in the waters. The availability of nitrate and phosphate for primary production was temporarily limited throughout most of the spring and autumn blooming season.

Last interglacial to Holocene sedimentation on intertidal to subtidal flats revealed by seismic and deep-core sediment analyses, southwest coast of Korea

Over the past two decades, tidal flats in the west coast of Korea (eastern Yellow Sea) have been extensively investigated to reveal sedimentation and stratigraphic evolution coupled with sea level changes. In spite of such efforts, their sedimentary record and evolution pattern particularly in the deeper subtidal area are relatively little documented. To expand and fulfill our knowledge on sedimentation history from last interglacial to the Holocene, three drilled cores (up to ca. 28 m in length) and Chirp seismic profiles obtained from the subtidal zones along the southwestern coast of Korea were examined, with supplementary OSL and 14C-AMS age dates. Based on the sedimentary facies analysis correlated with seismic units, the subtidal deposits can be divided into four units: Unit I) basal fluvial deposit (MIS 6?), Unit II) tidal deposits (MIS 5e), Unit III) transition deposits between salt marsh and oxidized inland coastal dune (early Holocene), and Unit IV) Holocene tidal deposits, in ascending order. These units can be then grouped into two sedimentary sequences, a lower sequence S1 (Unit I and II) and an upper S2 (Unit III and IV) separated by an unconformable surface, being responded to two cycles in sea-level fluctuations. Each sequence started with non-marine deposits formed during lowstand in sea-level, and then overlain by tidal successions deposited during transgression. The feature thus indicates two tidal deposits, i.e., last interglacial and the Holocene in ages, preserved in the macrotidal west coast of Korea, possibly being major constituents of coastal successions to be survived in the records. This can be used to correlate with other marine strata in the western (Chinese) Yellow Sea since the last interglacial.

The formation of concealed firmground in open-coast macrotidal flats, southwestern coast of Korea: its sedimentological and ichnological characteristics

Since wave-dominated open-coast tidal flats have sedimentologically strong similarity with typical wave-dominated shorefaces, it is very difficult to distinguish between them in ancient records. Many-year field observations along the southwestern Korean tidal flats have revealed that autogenically generated firmground muds are frequently exposed on the high-tide beach face, as a result of swash-bar migration/welding. Observed ichnology in the firmground muds have clearly shown that ichnocoenoses across the intertidal swash bars are in good agreement with the preserved firmground-mud traces, reflecting different substrate consistencies at the time of colonization. Unlined deep-tier firmground burrows, including Psilonichnus and Thalassinoides, typically crosscut the pre-existing softground suites including Skolithos-, Arenicolites- and Monocraterion-like burrows. Due to the fact that such firmground muds and the autogenic Glossifungites Ichnofacies are very uncommon in a normal wave-dominated shoreface to beach setting, the presence of firmground muds on high-energy beach face may indicate a very specific depositional environment with significant tides and considerable wave energy (i.e., open-coast tidal flats). In this context, the study results would aid in the recognition of wave-dominated tidal flat in ancient deposits.

국내 벼-보리 이모작지와 벼 단작지의 탄소수지 비교

본 연구에서는 전라북도 김제시 부량면 신용리의 벼단작지 및 벼-보리 이모작의 논 생태계에 설치된 플럭스 관측시스템으로부터 1년간 연속적으로 관측된 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> 플럭스 자료 및 <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> 배출량 자료를 활용하여, 논 생태계의 탄소수지를 평가하고자 하였다. 벼 단작지 및 벼-보리 이모작 논 생태계의 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> 플럭스는 대표적인 미기상학적 방식인 에디공분산 방법을 이용하였고, <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> 발생량은 개폐형 챔버방식의 자동화 시스템을 이용하여 측정하였다. 또한, 여러 가지 기상인자(복사, 기온 및 지온 등)도 함께 조사하였다. 관측된 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> 플럭스자료는 보정과 결측보충의 과정을 거친 후 탄소수지 분석에 활용되었다. 2014년도의 벼 단작 및 벼-보리 이모작 논 생태계의 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX>의 순생태 교환량은 각각 단위면적(<TEX>$m^2$</TEX>)당 -436.8, -587.5g C로 분석되었고, <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> 발생량은 각각 +16.04, <TEX>$+18.61g\;C\;m^{-2}$</TEX>로 분석되었다. 벼 재배 기간 동안 <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> 발생량은 물 관리에 따라 큰 영향을 받는 것으로 나타났는데, 담수상태에서 <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> 발생량이 배수상태보다 더 높은 것으로 분석되었다. 본 연구는 국내에서 벼 단작과 벼-보리 이모작의 논 생태계의 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> 플럭스와 <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> 배출량을 기반으로 탄소수지를 정량화한 1차적인 연구결과로서, 벼-보리 이모작의 논 생태계가 벼 단작의 논 생태계보다 1년에 약 <TEX>$128.9g\;C\;m^{-2}$</TEX>를 더 흡수하는 것으로 평가되었다. Carbon dioxide (<TEX>$CO_2$</TEX>) and methane (<TEX>$CH_4$</TEX>) were measured in a rice-barley double cropping and rice mono cropping paddy fields, which are located in the southwestern coast of Korea, over a one-year period. Net ecosystems <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> exchange (NEE) and ecosystem respiration (Re) were estimated by the eddy covariance (EC) method, and an automatic open/close chamber (AOCC) method was used to measure <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> fluxes. Environmental factors (solar radiation, air temperature, precipitation etc.) were also measured along with fluxes. After the quality control and gap-filling, the observed fluxes were analyzed. As a result, NEE was -603.0 and <TEX>$-471.5g\;C\;m^{-2}\;yr^{-1}$</TEX> in rice-barley double cropping and rice mono cropping paddy field, respectively. <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX> emissions increased during the course of flooded days and were similar in two cropping paddy field. Accoding to rough results considering only fluxes of <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> and <TEX>$CH_4$</TEX>, it was estimated that the carbon absorbation in rice-barley double cropping paddy field was higher than that in rice mono cropping paddy field by <TEX>$128.9g\;C\;m^{-2}\;yr^{-1}$</TEX>.

Temporal changes in the geographic distribution of two clam species Meretrix lusoria and M. petechialis along the coast of Japan and South Korea

The objectives of this study were to distinguish fossil specimens of Meretrix (Bivalvia, Veneridae) using discriminant score and multivariate analysis, and to examine temporal changes in the geographical distributions of M. lusoria and M. petechialis in Japan and South Korea. Fossil shells of Meretrix were collected from Miyagi, Fukui, Aichi and Kumamoto in Japan, and Gimhae, Seosan, Siheung and Ganghwa-do in South Korea. The outside of the right valve was photographed with a digital camera, and ten characteristics of the shell morphology, such as shell height and shell length, were measured using image analysis software and a digital slide caliper. The discriminant score and multivariate analysis of the shell morphology identified all of the examined fossils as M. lusoria, while living individuals collected from the western coast of South Korea were identified as M. petechialis. These results suggest that the fossil shells excavated from the western coast of South Korea are a different species from the living individuals collected from the same areas. Radioactive carbon isotopic results revealed that the ages of the four fossil shells collected from tidal flats in Ganghwa-do ranged between 3,270 ± 30 and 1,830 ± 30 Cal BP. These results suggest that M. lusoria inhabited the western coast of South Korea until at least 2,000 years ago, but was replaced by M. petechialis during the last 2,000 years. Therefore, we propose that either M. petechialis spats were introduced artificially, or planktonic larvae migrated naturally from China to the western coast of South Korea during the last 2,000 years.

Parametrization of the Tidal Effect for Use in the Noah Land-Surface Model: Development and Validation

We have developed a parametrization of tidal effects for use in the Noah land-surface model and have validated the land-surface model using observations taken over a tidal flat of the western coast of South Korea. The parametrization is based on the energy budget of a water layer with varying thickness above the soil. During flood tide, heat transfer by the moving water is considered in addition to the surface energy budget. In addition, partial penetration of solar radiation through the water layer is considered in the surface energy budget, and the water thickness varying with time is used as an additional input. Seven days with clear-sky conditions and westerly winds during the daytime are selected for validation of the model. Two simulations are performed in an offline mode: a control simulation without the tidal effect (CONTROL) and a simulation with the tidal effect (TIDE). Comparisons of results have been made with eddy-covariance measurements and soil temperature data for the tidal flats. Observations show that inundation significantly reduces both sensible and latent heat fluxes during daytime, which is well simulated in the TIDE simulation. The diurnal variation and magnitude of soil temperature are better simulated in the TIDE than in the CONTROL simulation. Some underestimation of the latent heat flux over the water surface is partly attributed to the use of one layer of water and the underestimated roughness length at this site. In addition, other model deficiencies are discussed.