Western Balkans Research Articles

The Geopolitics of EU Enlargement: From Club to Commons

Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine changed the European Union’s attitude towards enlargement. Whereas five years previously European leaders had suggested that any expansion of the EU should be put on hold, suddenly they embraced potential membership for Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova and the Western Balkans. Enlargement is the strongest instrument that the EU has to bring stability to and foster reform in bordering countries. But that strategy invites risk. Countries might join before their democracies are stable and before European institutions are ready to accommodate a wider and more diverse membership. Nevertheless, enlargement is better than the alternative. Russian victory over Ukraine would threaten not only the security of the EU but also the functioning of the single market, efforts to fight inflation and the stability of the financial system. The EU needs enlargement to protect the European commons.

Unveiling the Enigma: Empowering Citizen Engagement in Decision-Making Deciphering Albania's Case

This article aims to fill the gap and analyze citizen involvement in developing and transitional democracy, focusing specifically on Albania, a country in the Western Balkans. The objective of this article is to examine the models, trends, obstacles and opportunities offered by citizen participation, as well as to evaluate the determinant factors and their impact on the transformative processes of democratization and the fragile development of Albania. The article explores the participation of citizens in the decision-making process, and their role in policy-making and democratic decision-making and tries to understand how citizens can be more actively involved in the decision-making process and how this involvement can increase the legitimacy and effectiveness of policies. In this study, we use qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze existing practices of citizen involvement in the decision-making process at different levels of local and central government. We focus on the tools and mechanisms that can be used to encourage the involvement of citizens in the decision-making process. The results of this study aim to provide recommendations for policymakers and practitioners at different levels of government to improve the involvement of citizens in the process of decision-making. In conclusion, through these recommendations, we aim to help increase transparency, responsibility and legitimacy of decision-making processes and create an environment where citizens feel involved and heard in decision-making that affects life. Received: 8 March 2024 / Accepted: 13 June 2024 / Published: 02 July 2024

Duplication, recombination and weak selection shape evolution at the MHC class II SLA-DRB1 locus in wild boars from the western Balkans

Duplication, recombination and weak selection shape evolution at the MHC class II SLA-DRB1 locus in wild boars from the western Balkans

Role of Innovation on Green Economic Growth: Empirical Analysis from the Countries of the Western Balkans

The impact of innovations on the growth of the green economy is a crucial aspect for a country’s economy. The promotion of these innovations and investments is also vital for sustainable and long-term development. This paper aims to present the role of innovation on green economic growth in the countries of the Western Balkans (Kosovo, Albania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia) over a 13-year period, from 2010 to 2022.Data for the research were obtained from the World Bank and the Global Economy Database, where the study data type is Panel. The econometric models used are: the ordinary least squares (OLS) model, the Fixed Effect (FE) model, the Random Effect (RE) model and the Hausman Taylor (HTH) model. The dependent variable is green economic growth, while the independent variables include the innovation index (INV), research and development expenditures (R&D), information technology exports (ITE), patent applications from residents (PA), manufacturing output (MAN), business freedom index (BFI), investment freedom index (IFI), and economic freedom index (EFI). The findings of this paper show that the countries of the Western Balkans should promote key factors such as: innovation as an important driver, with a positive impact on green economic growth; research and development expenses; patent applications, and favorable business and economic environments to facilitate long-term green economic growth and promote environmental sustainability. The results indicate that the coefficient for innovation is positive (B=0.41) and statistically significant at the 1% level, supporting the hypothesis that the increase in innovation has a positive impact on green economic growth in the countries of the Western Balkans.

Long-term impact of basin-wide wastewater management on faecal pollution levels along the entire Danube River

The Danube River is, at 2857 km, the second longest river in Europe and the most international river in the world with 19 countries in its catchment. Along the entire river, faecal pollution levels are mainly influenced by point-source emissions from treated and untreated sewage of municipal origin under base-flow conditions. In the past 2 decades, large investments in wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure were made in the European Union (EU) Member States located in the Danube River Basin (DRB). Overall, the share of population equivalents with appropriately biologically treated wastewater (without disinfection) has increased from 69% to more than 85%. The proportion of tertiary treatment has risen from 46 to 73%. In contrast, no comparable improvements of wastewater infrastructure took place in non-EU Member States in the middle and lower DRB, where a substantial amount of untreated wastewater is still directly discharged into the Danube River. Faecal pollution levels along the whole Danube River and the confluence sites of the most important tributaries were monitored during four Danube River expeditions, the Joint Danube Surveys (JDS). During all four surveys, the longitudinal patterns of faecal pollution were highly consistent, with generally lower levels in the upper section and elevated levels and major hotspots in the middle and lower sections of the Danube River. From 2001 to 2019, a significant decrease in faecal pollution levels could be observed in all three sections with average reduction rates between 72 and 86%. Despite this general improvement in microbiological water quality, no such decreases were observed for the highly polluted stretch in Central Serbia. Further improvements in microbiological water quality can be expected for the next decades on the basis of further investments in wastewater infrastructure in the EU Member States, in the middle and lower DRB. In the upper DRB, and due to the high compliance level as regards collection and treatment, improvements can further be achieved by upgrading sewage treatment plants with quaternary treatment steps as well as by preventing combined sewer overflows. The accession of the Western Balkan countries to the EU would also significantly boost investments in wastewater infrastructure and water quality improvements in the middle section of the Danube. Continuing whole-river expeditions such as the Joint Danube Surveys is highly recommended to monitor the developments in water quality in the future.

Cytomorphological Features as a Subtyping Tool of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer in Brushing Bronchoscopic Samples.

Nowadays, the separation of adenocarcinomas (ADCs) and squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) is crucial given that there are new specific targeted therapies. So, the aim of this study was to examine the differences in cytomorphological features between ADC and SCC in bronchoscopic brush samples. The retrospective study was conducted over a 3-year period at Western Balkan University Hospital. All brushing samples were analysed. According to the histopathological report, patients were classified into ADC and SCC groups. The cytomorphological features analysed in 95 samples were presence of necrosis, cell distribution, nuclear atypia, size of nuclei, and visibility of nucleoli. Statistical analysis was performed in JASP, and P values <0.05 were considered significant. The necrotic background was more frequent in SCC samples. Small clusters sized ≤200 µm were found in 17.95% of samples from the SCC group and 53.57% in the ADC group. Large clusters sized >400 µm were found in 43.59% in the SCC group, while in the ADC group, it was found in 5.36%. There were no differences in nuclear atypia between groups. Nuclei that were >5x lymphocyte size were found more often in samples from ADC than in the SCC group (37.50 vs 10.25%). In 89.75% of samples from the SCC group, nuclei were ≤5x lymphocyte sizes, while in the ADC group, the percentage was 63.5%. Nucleoli were more often visible in samples from the ADC group compared to the SCC group (92.86% vs 64.10%, P < 0,05). Small clusters, large nuclei, and visible nucleoli were more frequent in the ADC group (P < 0.05), while large clusters, small nuclei, and invisible nucleoli were more frequent in the SCC group (P < 0.05).

The integration of Albanian women in the Balkan and European labor market

Abstract The integration of Albania in the EU is one of the greatest aspirations that Albanian citizens have in their future. The effort to adapt the workforce of Albanian citizens to the European market has been positive. This can be seen in the number of Albanian women who have moved and continue to move in the EU countries. The emancipation of women has led to an increase in the level of education and an increase in the professional level. The integration of women as equal power in Albanian families makes it possible for the spirit of gender discrimination to decrease significantly. The presented study will be based on the inclusion of the Albanian woman in the European market as well as her emancipation in professional development. The review of information includes the analysis of relevant and available data and sources (reports, reports from previous surveys, research, etc.) regarding the needs of the labor market. In this paper we will analyze the relationship between gender, education level, age and salary level. Each of these factors in the economy has defined roles, based on the primary indicators and on the distinguishing indicators of everyone’s knowledge in this scheme, but with a common goal to serve the stability and growth of the Albanian economy. The registered unemployment rate for 2011 was 13.3% of which women represent 14.3% and men, 12.4%. The highest unemployment rate corresponds to the 15-29 age group and it is estimated that there is at least 50% employment in the informal economy. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the women’s labor market in Albania based on the statistical data of INSTAT with a focus also in the EU and the Western Balkan market by using the linear regression method.

Digital divide and digitalization in Europe: A bibliometric analysis

Research background: Digitalization and the associated digital divide are crucial issues impacting socio-economic development globally. Extensive research has examined digitalization and the digital divide in EU countries, but there is a lack of understanding regarding comparisons with studies conducted in Western Balkan countries. This study investigates digitalization trends in research from the past five years in both regions, focusing on efforts and factors contributing to the digital gap. Purpose of the article: The study analyzes research on digitalization from 2018 to 2023 in the EU and Western Balkans. It explores factors causing the digital divide and efforts in digitalization, aiming to guide future research and policy for digital inclusion and sustainable development. Methods: The study employs a meticulous data selection process, choosing Scopus as the database for its extensive coverage of diverse journals. A total of 1119 articles from EU countries and 277 from Western Balkan countries are selected for bibliometric analysis, adhering to PRISMA guidelines. Findings &amp; value added: The research reveals a growing interest in digitalization-related issues, demonstrating the multidisciplinary nature of ongoing research. It points out the distribution of publications on digitalization in the EU and Western Balkans countries. The EU focuses on digital technologies, economic growth, and sustainability, while Western Balkan countries focus on COVID-19 impact and digitalization in education and business. The research compares digitalization efforts in the EU and Western Balkan countries presented in the literature, pointing to new dimensions of the digital divide studies. It discusses how socio-economic contexts affect digital transformation and stresses the need for tailored policy approaches for digital inclusivity. These insights are of great importance for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners working towards global digital development and bridging the digital divide. The study lays the groundwork for future research and policy considerations, considering limitations like potential bias in databases and search criteria.

TÜRKİYE'S ROLE IN WESTERN BALKANS SECURITY COOPERATION

This article seeks to provide a descriptive analysis of Türkiye’s role in security cooperation in the Western Balkans and the criticisms of Türkiye’s position on this cooperation. In order to achieve this, the article identifies active security cooperation mechanisms in the Western Balkans, analyses Türkiye’s activities in these mechanisms and the security dimension of Türkiye’s bilateral relations with the countries in the region. Furthermore, criticisms of Türkiye’s attitude towards regional security cooperation efforts after 2016 have been put forward and these criticisms have been discussed. As a result, it is understood that Türkiye plays an active role in regional security cooperation, contributes to the security cooperation of the region, and has the potential to support the capacity building of Western Balkan countries in specific areas such as counterterrorism.

EU Enlargement Policy between the Chronological Precedence of the Western Balkans and the Geopolitical Urgency in the Eastern Neighborhood

This study adopts a realist approach to explore how geopolitical factors influence the European Union’s (EU) decision to expand into neighbouring regions of strategic importance or vulnerability to major powers’ influence. It specifically examines the obstacles posed by the absence of a unanimous stance on „pre-scheduled” accessions, as seen in the earlier „eastern enlargement” rounds. It is argued that the present geopoliticized EU enlargement policy seems to be guided by realist factors, although it is characterized by an incongruity between strategic rhetoric and strategic actions. This inconsistency between expressed intentions and actual measures is more evident in the Western Balkans than in the Eastern neighbourhood. Through the selected, broadly set realist elements – groupism, egoism and power-centrism – the EU’s foreign policy strategy and behaviour are examined, searching for a gap between the discursive and practical domains in both regions. The research considers that the EU’s response has not predominantly been strategic but rather tactical, reflecting the enlargement policy’s longstanding deficiencies, coupled with the urgent need to extend commitments to the eastern partners facing immediate security threats. Such tendencies are disadvantageous for the Western Balkans, which became a lower priority for the EU despite its chronological precedence in the enlargement domain. While ideally, both enlargement regions should be granted an „accession timetable” along with on-ground democratic reforms, the authors highlight that due to differing geopolitical dynamics and pressure, the outcomes for the two regions may either diverge in terms of potential favouring of the new candidates or, perhaps more likely, converge – meaning that the accession of either region might be postponed once the geopolitical urgency subsides.

Maintaining Sustainable Public Finances: The Role of Fiscal Consolidation

Fiscal consolidation became a very essential process in policymakers’ circles and also in academia, especially in the aftermath of the 2008 crisis and it seems that the necessity of fiscal consolidation is back with the post-COVID situation and also with the crisis caused by the war in Ukraine. In literature, fiscal consolidation processes most of the time deal with the main aim to reduce public debt, but do we need fiscal consolidation just in times when the situation with public debt tends to get out of control? Fiscal consolidation can be justified not only in high-level debt situations when there is not enough fiscal space. Some countries, although they have moderate public debt levels, still need to implement fiscal consolidation to reform, structure, and sustain public finances. Such conditions are present in Kosovo, a country in the Western Balkans 6 and this study aims to present the role of the fiscal consolidation process for the sustainability of public finances from the perspective of Kosovo. Using the VAR model and impulse response functions, this study, through analysis at disaggregated levels for major groups of revenues and expenses, will propose an accurate fiscal consolidation process for Kosovo. The study concludes that in the case of Kosovo, in time of fiscal consolidation there is room for interventions in direct taxes, indirect taxes, and transfers &amp; subventions expenses.

The Determinants of Profitability of Western Balkan Countries Commercial Banks: A panel Data Approach

Commercial banks are considered to be important contributors to the country’s financial system and economic development. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of various factors on commercial banks’ profitability. Moreover, the study compares and analyzes the main determinants of the banks’ profitability in Western Balkan (WB) countries. The sample size includes all commercial banks in WB countries, covering the period 2010–2020. The collected data provides information about the two main measurements used to determine a bank’s performance: 1) return on assets (ROA) and 2) return on equity (ROE), which in our study were used as indicators varying from non-performing loans, the number of banks, real gross domestic product growth, the unemployment rate, and consumer price inflation (percent, period average). The estimated regression models with panel data revealed that real GDP growth, the unemployment rate, and inflation are positively correlated and significantly determine the bank’s performance. While two other factors (non-performing loans and the number of banks) were negatively associated with the performance of banks. Since the determining factors of external and internal profitability turn out to be almost the same for all the countries of the Western Balkans, during the observed period of 2010– 2020, the number of cases of non-performing loans was much higher in other countries of the region than in Kosovo. Once again, the banking system in Kosovo, unlike other countries, has scored ROE performance indicators that are almost three times higher than the average of the countries in the region. On the other hand, Kosovo has the highest unemployment rate in the region. While the weakest ROE performance was in Montenegro, which was improving year after year. Our findings have several important implications for policymakers and regulators, especially in Kosovo.

QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF GROWTH IN THE NEW ECONOMIC REALITY

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The succession of crises that have shaken the world in recent years - from the global pandemic and extreme weather conditions to armed conflicts and mass migrations - testifies that there is no going back to pre-pandemic conditions and &amp;quot;business as usual.&amp;quot; A new economic reality has been created that shapes consumption and business outcomes. Economic growth is once again in focus, both in terms of the quantity (pace) of growth and its quality, which gains special significance under changed circumstances. The key question today is not whether the world still needs economic growth, but how that growth is achieved and whether it is aligned with national and global priorities. The paper examines the trends of economic growth worldwide and explores its quality based on the new framework of the World Economic Forum, which is founded on four pillars (Innovativiness, Inclusiveness, Sustainability, and Resilience) and adapted to the new global context. The aim of the paper is to valorize contemporary economic growth, taking into account both its quantitative and qualitative aspects. The fundamental hypothesis is that the pace and quality of growth vary depending on the country&amp;#039;s level of economic development, but are not strictly determined by it. The analysis reveals the performance of the world and selected European countries from the CEE, as well as Western Balkans, in terms of the pace and, especially, the quality of growth. This provides a basis for a critical reassessment and reshaping of existing growth models and policies for the new economic era.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;

Phenotypic marker study of worldwide wheat germplasm

The goal of this research is to test breeding material of different geographical origin, and material that is adapted to different agro-climatic regions. This research examines how different wheat genotypes behave in the climatic conditions of the Pannonian Plain, where environmental stress occur more and more frequently. Fifteen divergent wheat genotypes were evaluated for grain yield, heading time and yield components (spike length, grain weight per spike and plant height) across seasons 2017/2018, 2018/2019 and 2019/2020. By applying the ANOVA model, significant differences between tested traits were recorded among the analyzed genotypes. Among the genotypes there was a variability that ranged widely for all tested traits. The coefficient of variation ranged from 5.48 % for plant height to 41.03 % for grain weight per spike. Correlation analysis showed strong positive relationships between grain yield and grain weight per spike (r = 0.87), as well as between plant height and heading time (r = 0.65). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was also applied in order to determine the differences between wheat genotypes. This yield marker study, which was carried out in the Western Balkans, could be very valuable in providing breeders with the information they need to evaluate their breeding programs.

Mixedness in conflict: The impact of Yugoslav wars on intermarriages in the Western Balkans

AbstractThis paper examines the phenomenon of intermarriages in the Western Balkans, shedding light on their intricate relationship with the region's tumultuous history, ethnic diversity, and socio‐political dynamics. Through a comprehensive exploration of interethnic unions across different areas, the study delves into how these marriages have historically served as symbols of coexistence and integration, particularly during the mid‐20th century, when they were encouraged by the newly‐formed states to unite the different nations living in them. However, the rise of ethno‐nationalism and the Yugoslav Wars significantly impacted these marital patterns, underscoring the complex interplay between politics, culture, and traditional norms. The paper highlights the decline in mixed marriages post‐war, persistent ethnic tensions, and varying dynamics in different locales, suggesting that comprehensive approaches are needed for sustainable peace and unity in the Western Balkans. Through this lens, intermarriages emerge not just as personal unions but as potent symbols and potential catalysts for broader societal transformations, albeit within a context of considerable challenges and the need for nuanced, multifaceted approaches to fostering lasting interethnic harmony.

Determinants of Financial Inclusion in the Western Balkans

Determinants of Financial Inclusion in the Western Balkans

COMPETITIVENESS AND SUSTAINABILITY OF THE TOURISM SECTOR OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ACCORDING TO OECD

This paper investigates the potential applicability of OECD competitiveness and sustainability indicators of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The analysis assesses the current state of the country's tourism industry and identifies areas that require significant improvement to enhance competitiveness compared to other Western Balkan countries. This comprehensive study covers all relevant data necessary to measure the OECD indicators. Based on the research conducted, it was found that Bosnia and Herzegovina does not adequately monitor the competitiveness of its tourism industry. The main objective of this research is to demonstrate that the political-territorial structure of the country presents the main challenge in achieving a competitive and sustainable tourism industry.

The Impact of Banking Sector Credits on Economic Growth in Western Balkan Countries

The Impact of Banking Sector Credits on Economic Growth in Western Balkan Countries

Pre-enlargement Reform Failures in the Western Balkans: Social and Economic Preconditions of the Rule of Law

In this paper, I investigate the attempts of the European Union to promote and entrench the rule of law standards in the Western Balkans countries. I examine the failures of legal reforms in key policy areas, such as the regulations of judicial independence, the legislative branch of government, vetting and suppression of corruption, that prevent progress in achieving the rule of law standards. I demonstrate how a narrow focus on the judiciary and its performance has harmed the standards. I propose a more specific focus on socio–economic reforms that, at first glance, appear less relevant to the rule of law. These are: higher education reforms, digitalization, decarbonization, and better targeting of anti-corruption measures. More focus on these areas allows a refocusing from a narrow conception of rule of law to other good governance reforms.

Relationship between renewable energy, technological innovation, and economic indicators of green growth: Comparative analysis of the OECD and Western Balkan Regions

This study examines the role of renewable energy, technological innovation, and economic indicators in promoting green growth by conducting a comparative analysis between OECD countries and the Western Balkan region over the period 2010–2022. The research includes a sample of 5 Western Balkan countries and 38 OECD countries, aiming to understand the contributions of these factors to sustainable development in diverse economic contexts. This paper uses the Hausman Taylor Model instrumental variables (IV) economic model to address the potential endogeneity of the data, provides a strong assessment of the impact, and analyses how renewable energy, technological innovation in the green economy, and various economic indicators contribute to sustainable economic development. The study findings indicate that for Western Balkan countries, technological innovation, urbanization, trade, and economic growth positively influence green growth. On the other hand, the findings for OECD countries indicate that renewable energy consumption and technological innovation positively influence green growth, whereas economic indicators such as economic growth, inflation, domestic credit private by banks and trade have negative effects on green growth.Contrasting results between the OECD and the regions of the Western Balkans highlight the influence of the various stages of economic development and the importance of context-specific factors in determining the results of green growth. The study emphasizes the need for customized policy interventions that consider the unique economic conditions and environmental goals of each region to achieve a transition towards a more sustainable future. The implications of these findings suggest significant policy considerations for enhancing green growth effectively across different global contexts.