Weapon Delivery Research Articles

A Folsom Foreshaft from the Blackwater Draw Site

AbstractThis article describes a bison rib bone foreshaft from the Blackwater Draw site, New Mexico. The object was recovered by James Hester in 1963, during the excavation of locality 4, and it was subsequently cataloged as a modified bone tool but not recognized as a hafting element. It is currently held in the Blackwater Draw Museum collections. This analysis provides a detailed description of the artifact's features and establishes its provenience from a Folsom context. A survey of known Paleoindigenous hafting implements and a discussion of theoretical Folsom foreshaft designs serve to reinforce the classification of the tool as a component of the Folsom weapon delivery system. The tool was likely broken during use and later recycled as a pressure flaker or as a polishing instrument. With the help of 3D imagery, a reconstructed model was printed and fitted with large and small Folsom points to test ideas borrowed from the theoretical literature on Folsom foreshaft design.

Reassessing the Interpretative Potential of Ethnographic Collections for Early Hunting Technologies

Archaeological studies of early weaponry have relied for decades on ethnographic parallels—whether from ethnohistorical accounts, ethnographic literature, or from objects studied in museum collections. While such accounts and collected objects provided key data in the past, including of morphometrics and functionality, few studies have explored the quality of such data. In this paper, we critically assess a dominant theoretical paradigm, namely the utility of ethnographic collections to assess Pleistocene archaeological material. Our focus is how ethnographic spear morphometrics are used to propose delivery methods of archaeological weapons. We discuss the archaeological significance of early spears, and the role that ethnography has played in interpreting them. We provide new morphometric data of ethnographic wooden spears, which have been used analogically to assess the earliest archaeological hunting tools. We systematically collected data from ethnographic collections of wooden spears in five museums in the UK and Australia including mass, length, diameters and point of balance, alongside any recorded information on provenance and use. Older datasets, as well as the data in this paper, are limited due to collection bias and a lack of detailed museum records. By subjecting the new data to statistical analyses, we find that with a few exceptions morphometrics are not reliable predictors of delivery as thrusting or hand-thrown spears (javelins). Prevalent hypotheses linking variables such as mass, tip design, or maximum diameter with delivery are unsupported by our results. However, the descriptive statistics provided may remain useful as a means of comparative data for archaeological material. We conclude that using simple morphometrics to parse weapon delivery has had a drag effect on forming new and interesting hypotheses about early weapons.

Terminal ballistic analysis of impact fractures reveals the use of spearthrower 31 ky ago at Maisières-Canal, Belgium

The emergence of hunting technology in the deep past fundamentally shaped the subsistence strategies of early human populations. Hence knowing when different weapons were first introduced is important for understanding our evolutionary trajectory. The timing of the adoption of long-range weaponry remains heavily debated because preserved organic weapon components are extremely rare in the Paleolithic record and stone points are difficult to attribute reliably to weapon delivery methods without supporting organic evidence. Here, we use a refined use-wear approach to demonstrate that spearthrower was used for launching projectiles armed with tanged flint points at Maisières-Canal (Belgium) 31,000 years ago. The novelty of our approach lies in the combination of impact fracture data with terminal ballistic analysis of the mechanical stress suffered by a stone armature on impact. This stress is distinct for each weapon and visible archaeologically as fracture proportions on assemblage scale. Our reference dataset derives from a sequential experimental program that addressed individually each key parameter affecting fracture formation and successfully reproduced the archaeological fracture signal. The close match between the archaeological sample and the experimental spearthrower set extends the timeline of spearthrower use by over 10,000 years and represents the earliest reliable trace-based evidence for the utilization of long-distance weaponry in prehistoric hunting.

Achieving Minimum Deterrence: A New Dyadic Dataset on Strategic Nuclear Weapons Delivery Capabilities

This paper argues that existing quantitative studies mistakenly assume that all nuclear states can impose nuclear destruction on opponents by simply distinguishing nuclear states from non-nuclear states. This practice, however, does not capture variation in 1) nuclear states’ possession of delivery capabilities, 2) the range of deployed nuclear delivery systems, and 3) the geographic distance between nuclear states and their dyadic counterparts. Instead of this monadic nuclear statehood approach, I propose the dyadic nuclear reach approach, which uses a new dyad-specific measure of states’ strategic nuclear delivery capabilities. It codes whether a nuclear state can launch a nuclear strike against a given opponent by using the information about the estimated range of each nuclear state’s strategic nuclear delivery platforms, nuclear operation bases, and states’ capital cities. An empirical application shows that using an appropriate measure of nuclear capabilities does significantly alter existing empirical knowledge of nuclear weapons and international conflict.

Status and Prospect of Land-based Delivery Platform Technology for Artillery Weapons

Land-based delivery platform technology for artillery weapons is a comprehensive technology to study the adaptability of artillery weapon and land-based delivery platform, and its function is to is to provide transportation and loading platform for artillery and realize tactical mobility and battle mobility of artillery. This paper reviews the important technical progress of China’s artillery weapons in land-based delivery platform technology, contrasts and analyses the research progress at home and abroad, and outlooks the development trend and countermeasures in the field of land-based delivery platform technology for China’s artillery weapons.

Effectiveness of nuclear deterrence against Russia

ObjectivesThe objective is to answer three research, policy, and strategy questions: 1. Is and will be the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence effective against Russia? 2. Can the strategy of nuclear deterrence as the supreme guarantee of the security of NATO have a lasting public acceptance in the member states? 3. Is it necessary to complement the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence with another, also strong but different, guarantee of security?MethodsQualitative methodology is used. Offical documents and scientific publications provide the basis for analysis.ResultsThe answer to question 1 is mostly but not fully positive: Against Russia, the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence probably has and will have high although not absolute effectiveness. Evaluated are five nesserary conditions of effectiveness. Negative is the answer to question 2 if concerning Poland and other countries of the eastern flank of NATO that have little knowledge of and historical experience in nuclear arms and strategy: The strategy of nuclear deterrence based on the threat of nuclear retaliation against nuclear-armed nations will probably not gain a lasting public acceptance. Affirmative is the answer to question 3: The NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence requires a complementary strong security guarantee.ConclusionsScientific and technological progress will likely allow NATO to create a complementary guarantee by realizing the concept – which was unattainable in the past, including during the Cold War – of an impenetrable shield against nuclear weapon delivery means in airspace and outer space.

Despite challenges, US-Russian nuclear arms control has its benefits

ABSTRACT The last treaty limiting US and Russian nuclear arsenals, known as New START, expires in less than four years, which is not much time to put into place a replacement arms control arrangement. With bilateral tensions soaring, particularly given Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, Washington and Moscow must hold formal negotiations on a New START follow-on arrangement sooner rather than later, so as to prevent miscalculation or escalation – and ensure strategic stability between the world’s two largest owners of nuclear weapons. The negotiations rely on strong political will from both sides, who will each bring to the table a different agenda requiring some concessions from the other. Divisive though the talks will inevitably be, the United States and Russia can reach agreement on crucial issues of concern, such as Russia’s new nuclear weapon delivery systems unveiled in 2018 and 2019.

Russian Foot on the Central African Republic’s Soil: An Example of a Tactical Alliance

The article evaluates cooperation between the Central African Republic and the Russian Federation from the perspective of forming a tactical alliance. The article conceptualises the term tactical alliance and the aims of both partners, and analyses how these aims were fulfilled under the umbrella of the tactical alliance. The authors evaluated four dimensions of this alliance: 1) military and security cooperation, 2) weapons delivery, 3) resources exploitation and 4) international support. The article comes to the conclusion that a tactical alliance was formed by the unofficial cooperation that started between the CAR’s government and private companies backed by Moscow in 2017, while later (in 2019) the cooperation was officially established between the states and their representatives with its peak in December 2020. While the alliance may be seen as rational, the authors expect that this type of opportunistic alliance might not survive after the initial reasons for its formation disappear, especially provided that the partners are asymmetrical and geographically far from each other.

Russian Foot on the Central African Republic’s Soil: An Example of a Tactical Alliance

The article evaluates cooperation between the Central African Republic and the Russian Federation from the perspective of forming a tactical alliance. The article conceptualises the term tactical alliance and the aims of both partners, and analyses how these aims were fulfilled under the umbrella of the tactical alliance. The authors evaluated four dimensions of this alliance: 1) military and security cooperation, 2) weapons delivery, 3) resources exploitation and 4) international support. The article comes to the conclusion that a tactical alliance was formed by the unofficial cooperation that started between the CAR’s government and private companies backed by Moscow in 2017, while later (in 2019) the cooperation was officially established between the states and their representatives with its peak in December 2020. While the alliance may be seen as rational, the authors expect that this type of opportunistic alliance might not survive after the initial reasons for its formation disappear, especially provided that the partners are asymmetrical and geographically far from each other.

Revisiting nuclear hedging: ballistic missiles and the Iranian example

Abstract Technological shifts have made nascent nuclear arsenals more vulnerable. This article examines how this affects nuclear hedgers—that is, states deliberately seeking nuclear latency or the capability to develop the bomb. It argues that growing vulnerabilities provide hedgers with increasing incentives to acquire sophisticated ballistic missiles. Possession of missiles is crucial to limit the ‘window of vulnerability’ between a nuclear breakout decision and the attainment of a nuclear arsenal with deterrence value. The article illustrates this tendency through a case-study of the Iranian missile and rocket programs. It finds that missile acquisition has indeed been an integral part of Iran's hedging strategy, and that several of the systems it has acquired indicate an interest in nuclear weapons delivery. Furthermore, Iran's sophisticated missile arsenal significantly shortens its path to a credible nuclear deterrent. The article contributes to the proliferation literature, which has overlooked that the development of missiles is an increasingly important element of contemporary nuclear hedging. Its findings show that missiles increasingly need to be considered in scholarly assessments of states' nuclear latency and hedging, and in discussions about how difficult it is to acquire nuclear weapons. Moreover, the findings indicate that practitioners working to prevent proliferation should prioritize tracking missile programs.

The Potential of Hypersonic Weapons and the Great Military Powers Strategy regarding their Production. Case Study

Hypersonic missiles are a new category of weapons that have sparked intense debate among security experts. The hypersonic weapons, this combination of speed, accuracy, surprise, and maneuverability makes the defense against them more difficult than against standard ballistic or cruise missiles and therefore makes them more destabilizing. Capable of traveling over five times the speed of sound (Mach 5), and of performing evasive maneuvers mid-flight, they are considered practically impossible to intercept using conventional missile defense systems. Innovative nuclear and conventional weapon delivery systems are impressive and developing. These are grouped into three categories: intercontinental ballistic missiles, hypersonic delivery systems and new advanced strategic weapon delivery capabilities. These and other technological advances being made simultaneously may also impact arms control and strategic stability. Other characteristics of hypersonic systems, however, are potentially advantageous compared with ballistic missiles. Of particular interest are the ability to fly at low altitude, making detection by earth-based sensors difficult; the ability to maneuver during flight to avoid detection and interception; and the unpredictability of targets, since hypersonic vehicles do not follow a ballistic trajectory.

Impactul tehnologiilor emergente și disruptive asupra domeniului militar

Hypersonic missiles are a new category of weapons that have sparked intense debate among security experts. The hypersonic weapons, this combination of speed, accuracy, surprise, and maneuverability makes the defense against them more difficult than against standard ballistic or cruise missiles and therefore makes them more destabilizing. Capable of traveling over five times the speed of sound (Mach 5), and of performing evasive maneuvers mid-flight, they are considered practically impossible to intercept using conventional missile defense systems. Innovative nuclear and conventional weapon delivery systems are impressive and developing. These are grouped into three categories: intercontinental ballistic missiles, hypersonic delivery systems and new advanced strategic weapon delivery capabilities. These and other technological advances being made simultaneously may also impact arms control and strategic stability. Other characteristics of hypersonic systems, however, are potentially advantageous compared with ballistic missiles. Of particular interest are the ability to fly at low altitude, making detection by earth-based sensors difficult; the ability to maneuver during flight to avoid detection and interception; and the unpredictability of targets, since hypersonic vehicles do not follow a ballistic trajectory.

Myths and Reality of the Nuclear Weapons Ban

The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons which entered into force on 22 January 2021, sets an ambitious target of achieving a comprehensive ban on any nuclear-weapons-related activity, ranging from research and development, testing, production, deployment – to threat or their actual use in anger. However, with multiple states ranging from those in possession of nuclear weapons and those allied with them by security arrangements, to others, even including victims of adverse effects of uncontrollable release of nuclear energy, indicating unwillingness to join the Treaty, it is unlikely to become a viable means of promoting international peace and security. To enhance international security and strategic stability, regulation of nuclear weapons, including restrictions and prohibitions, should not be achieved at the expense of, and to the detriment of existing or nascent regulatory regimes, such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, assuming the latter eventually becomes effective, regional nuclear-weapon-free zones, as well as non-treaty regimes designed to prevent proliferation of nuclear weapon technologies, fissile materials or delivery systems.

СОВРЕМЕННОЕ СОСТОЯНИЕ И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ РАКЕТНО-ЯДЕРНОЙ ПРОГРАММЫ КНР

Due to high level of missile technologies development in China, as well as its desire to play a prominent role in the international arena, China’s nuclear missile program and its capabilities are of great importance. The instant modernization of China’s military industry is the reason, why the data on the quantity and quality of China’s nuclear program quickly becomes outdated. The article provides up-to-date data on the state of Chinese nuclear missile forces, analyzes trends in their development as well as the doctrinal documents. While the media often speculates about thousands of warheads stored in underground tunnels (not mines). Analysis of nuclear weapons delivery vehicles and methods of their deployment demonstrates that thousands of warheads placed in horizontal underground tunnels would be difficult to deploy in state of emergency. Even if the missile systems are partially located in the numerous underground tunnels, that is indeed admitted by Chinese researchers, there are not thousands of them, based on nuclear materials in China’s access. As for the mines captured in the images in 2021, it will take several years to complete their construction. Probably, they will be operated by the PLA Missile Forces, but a certain number of them might be used as false targets.

LVC Allocator: Aligning training value with scenario design for envisioned LVC training of fast-jet pilots

Live virtual constructive (LVC) flight simulations mix pilots flying actual aircraft, pilots flying in simulators, and computer-generated forces, in joint scenarios. Training resources invested in LVC scenarios must give a high return, and therefore pilots in both live aircraft and simulators need to experience training value for the extensive resources invested in both, an aspect not emphasized in current LVC research. Thus, there is a need for a function, in this article described as LVC Allocator, which assures that complex LVC training scenarios include aspects of training value for all participants, and, thus, purposefully align scenario design with training value. A series of workshops were carried out with 16 fast-jet pilots articulating the training challenges that LVC could contribute to solving, and allocating LVC entities in a training scenario design exercise. The training values for LVC included large scenarios, weapon delivery, flight safety, adversary performance, and weather dependence. These values guided the reasoning of how to allocate different entities to L, V, or C entities. Allocations were focused on adversaries as V, keeping entity types together, weather dependence, low-altitude and supersonic flying requirements, and to let L entities handle and lead complex tasks to keep the human in the loop.

Puerto Cabello: la rendición del último bastión monárquico en Venezuela durante las guerras de Independencia

En el marco de la conmemoración del Bicentenario del periodo de Independencia de las naciones hispanoamericanas, este artículo tiene por objeto analizar el proceso de rendición de la ciudad de Puerto Cabello, último bastión del régimen monárquico en Venezuela. Tras la firma de las capitulaciones convenidas para esta plaza, se pueden identificar en términos generales varias etapas claramente definidas que serán examinadas a lo largo de este artículo: la rendición, la juramentación, la desmovilización, la entrega de armas y la reinserción. Esta vía pacífica fue, en términos reales, una opción sensata de las partes en la fase final de una guerra larga y cruenta. Este trabajo se inscribe dentro del propósito de revisar el proceso de Independencia no desde el prisma de la guerra como fue la constante de la historiografía tradicional sino desde la perspectiva de las vías negociadas.

Optimization and verification of free flight separation similarity law in high-speed wind tunnel

Based on the similarity of separation time, a similarity law optimization method for high-speed weapon delivery test is derived. The typical separation state under wind load is simulated by the numerical method. The real separation data of aircraft, separation data of previous test methods, separation data of ideal wind tunnel test of previous methods, and simulation data of the proposed optimization method are obtained. A comparison of the data shows that the method proposed can improve the performance of tracking. Similarity law optimization starts with the development of motion equations and dynamic equations in the windless state to address the problems of mismatching between vertical and horizontal displacement, and to address the problems of separation trajectory distortion caused by insufficient gravity acceleration of the scaling model of existing light model. The ejection velocity of the model is taken as a factor/vector, and is adjusted reasonably to compensate the linear displacement insufficiency caused by the insufficient vertical acceleration of the light model method, so as to ensure the matching of the vertical and horizontal displacement of the projectile, and to improve the consistency between the test results of high-speed projection and the actual separation trajectory. The optimized similarity law is applicable to many existing free-throwing modes of high-speed wind tunnels. The optimized similarity law is not affected by the ejection velocity and hanging mode of the projectile. The optimized similarity law is suitable not only for the launching of the buried ammunition compartment and external stores, but also for the test design of projectile launching and gravity separation.

Traumatic amputations caused by drone attacks in the local population in Gaza: a retrospective cross-sectional study

Little data exist to describe the use and medical consequences of drone strikes on civilian populations in war and conflict zones. Gaza is a landstrip within the Palestinian territories and the home of 2 million people. The median age in Gaza is 17·2 years and almost half of the population is below the age of 14 years. We studied the prevalence and severity of extremity amputation injuries caused by drone strikes compared with those caused by other explosive weapons among patients with amputations attending the main physical prosthesis and rehabilitation centre in Gaza. In this retrospective cross-sectional study, we recruited patients from the Artificial Limb and Polio Centre (ALPC) in Gaza city in the Gaza strip with conflict-related traumatic extremity amputations. Patients were eligible if they had one or more amputations sustained during a military incursion in Gaza during 2006-16 and had an available patient record. Each patient completed a self-reporting questionnaire of the time and mechanism of injury, subsequent surgeries, comorbidities, and their socioeconomic status, and we collected each patient's medical history, recorded the anatomical location of their amputation or amputations, and interviewed each patient to obtain a detailed description of the incursion or incursions that led to their amputation injury. We classified the severity of amputations and number of subsequent surgeries on ordinal scales and then we determined the associations between these outcomes and the mechanism of explosive weapon delivery (drone strike vs other) using ordinal logistical regression. We collected data on 254 patients from APLC who had sustained an amputation injury. Of these patients, 234 (92%) were male and 43 (17%) were aged 18 years or younger at the time of injury. The age of participants was representative of the Gaza population, with a median age at inclusion was 28 years (IQR 23-33), and the median age at the time of injury was 23 years (IQR 20-29). 136 (54%) amputation injuries were caused by explosive weapons delivered by drone strikes, with explosives delivered by tanks being the next most common source of amputation injury (28 [11%]). Adjusted for age and sex, drone-delivered weapons caused significantly more severe injuries than explosives delivered by other mechanisms (eg, military jet airplanes, helicopters, tank shelling, and naval artillery; odds ratio [OR] 2·50, 95% CI 1·52-4·11; p=0·0003). Compared with all other types of weapons, the patients whose injuries were caused by drone strikes needed significantly more subsequent surgical operations to treat their amputation injuries than those injured by other weapons (OR 1·93, 1·19-3·14; p=0·008). Drone strikes were the most commonly reported cause of amputation injury in our study population and were associated with more severe injuries and more additional surgeries than injuries caused by other explosive weapons. Limitations of our study include the self-reported nature of the mechanism of injury and number of subsequent surgeries and selection bias from not incorporating amputation injuries from individuals who died immediately or due to complications. The increasing use of drones needs to be addressed, rather than passively accepted, by the international community. This study fills a gap in our knowledge of the civilian consequences of modern warfare and we believe it is also relevant to the growing populations that are being exposed to drone warfare and for health-care personnel treating these people. None.

Russia’s Strategic Deterrence and Defense Against Potential Means and Methods of Strategic Attack

Thе article analyzes the concept of strategic stability and its contemporary development in domestic military-political thought. The authors note that the expansion of the meaningful content of the concept of strategic stability in the Russian Federation occurred as a result of the development of strategic non-nuclear deterrence forces and the US policy to reduce the dependence of American foreign and defense policy on the factor of nuclear deterrence. These changes in the military-political situation in the world have led to a reduction in the stability of the relations of key states, despite some proliferation of nuclear weapon technologies in Asian countries. The article attempts to prove that the Russian Federation is able to withstand the new challenges associated with qualitative changes in the relations of mutual deterrence with the United States. As to this, the authors consistently analyze the historical context and conceptual foundations of deterrence policy, including recent documents adopted at the highest level in Russia. In addition, the authors analyze the recently adopted cruise missile systems in Russia and the United States, as well as anti-missile defense systems that alter the balance of power for a guaranteed response to strategic nuclear forces. Taking into account the current technological developments and the timeline for their implementation, the authors conclude that Russia has been able to achieve significant results in the field of aerospace defense, while naval defense and the introduction of new means of nuclear weapon delivery need additional attention from authorities. Finally, the authors believe that the development of the domestic military-industrial complex directly depends on the country's economic development, which means that the degree of effectiveness of Russian strategic weapons system must remain significantly higher than that of foreign counterparts.

Taking the archers for granted: emerging threats to nuclear weapon delivery systems

ABSTRACT A reliable capability is essential for deterrence to succeed. While incredible threats coupled with an assured ability to hurt an adversary may be enough to alter behavior, even the most credible threat is left impotent in the absence of a sufficient capability. During the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union at times sought weapons with first-strike potential that threatened the effectiveness of each other’s deterrent. Since then, though, nuclear powers have either committed to a no first use policy or generally refrained from pursuing technologies that could radically upset the strategic balance. Recent trends, however, again pose a threat to this stability. Nascent “left-of-launch” missile defense programs which rely on offensive cyber operations or electronic warfare to target adversary weapon systems prior to launch offer new opportunities for sophisticated state actors to subvert the reliability of these capabilities. This paper assesses what risks there may be to nuclear weapon delivery systems before examining why a country might be motivated to carry out such an act, what the ramifications for deterrence stability might be, and how these threats could be mitigated.