Weak Case Research Articles

Locations and Morphologies of Jellyfish Galaxies in A2744 and A370

We present a study of the orbits, environments, and morphologies of 13 ram-pressure stripped galaxies in the massive, intermediate redshift (z ∼ 0.3−0.4) galaxy clusters A2744 and A370, using MUSE integral-field spectroscopy and Hubble Space Telescope imaging from the Frontier Fields Program. We compare different measures of the locations and morphologies of the stripped sample with a sample of six post-starburst galaxies identified within the same clusters, as well as the general cluster population. We calculate the phase-space locations of all cluster galaxies and carry out a substructure analysis, finding that the ram-pressure stripped galaxies in A370 are not associated with any substructures, but are likely isolated infalling galaxies. In contrast, the ram-pressure stripped galaxies in A2744 are strictly located within a high-velocity substructure, moving through a region of dense X-ray emitting gas. We conclude that their ram-pressure interactions are likely to be the direct result of the merger between two components of the cluster. Finally, we study the morphologies of the stripped and post-starburst galaxies, using numerical measures to quantify the level of visual disturbances. We explore any morphological deviations of these galaxies from the cluster population, particularly the weaker cases that have been confirmed via the presence of ionized gas tails to be undergoing ram-pressure stripping, but are not strongly visually disturbed in the broadband data. We find that the stripped sample galaxies are generally divergent from the general cluster sample, with post-starburst galaxies being intermediary in morphology between stripped galaxies and red passive cluster members.

H2 adsorption by noble gas insertion compounds: A computational study

In order to find a solution of energy-related problems, sophisticated hydrogen storing materials are needed as hydrogen is an abundant and environment friendly fuel. We have investigated the hydrogen storage potential of Ng inserted metal acetylide and metal cyanide compounds (metal ​= ​Cu, Ag and Au) at the ωB97X-D/cc-pVTZ-PP level of theory. Due to the difference in electronegativity and formal charge on metal atoms in the insertion compounds, the interaction with the hydrogen molecule is expected to be different. The adsorption energies, the free energy of adsorption, natural charges on atomic centers/moieties are obtained through the natural population analysis, and energy decomposition analysis has also been carried out for nH2···MNgCCH and nH2···MNgCN (n ​= ​1–3). The hydrogen adsorption capacity of the strongest and the weakest cases has also been investigated. Both the insertion compounds, MNgCCH and MNgCN, are found to adsorb a maximum of three hydrogen molecules on the metal site. The single H2 adsorbed minimum energy structures of studied compounds show a “T-shaped” orientation while double H2 adsorbed minimum energy structures are of “Y- shaped” geometry and those of tricoordinated structures resemble “Td-like” shape. The negative value of Gibbs free energy change suggests the thermodynamical spontaneity of the hydrogen adsorption process.

Community-engaged rhetoric

ABSTRACTCommunity-engaged rhetoric enables rhetoricians to discern the ways social issues appear in the nomos, or cultural disposition, of public discourse; to hear the diverse ways humans measure experience about those issues that constitute the dissoi logoi, or competing logics, in public discourse; and to make the weaker case stronger about those issues by reframing them as catalysts for community-engaged partnerships in teaching, scholarship, and service.

Towards a Legacy of the Scottish Tradition: The Democratic Intellect in America

This paper addresses one of the themes of the 2018 CSSP Conference: understanding the legacy of the Scottish tradition. In doing so I suggest that we find some Scottish heirlooms in early American education. To make this case I will start with a text that has been largely refuted and establish a starting point for a legacy of the Scottish tradition with what I believe to be the weakest case: the almost unknown Glaswegian philosopher George Jardine (1742–1827).

Using Waste Vermiculite and Dolomite as Eco-Friendly Additives for Improving the Performance of Porous Concrete

The present study investigated the applicability of waste vermiculite and dolomite as fine aggregate, known as appropriate mineral adsorbents to enhance the quality of urban runoff, for improving the mechanical properties of porous concrete. 180 samples were mixed by adding 5-30% vermiculite and dolomite, as fine aggregate, and combining them with ordinary sand; lime sand (combining of 5-15% of each). Results showed that although adding dolomite culminated in a minor reduction of permeability– average of about 30%-, the average of compressive strength was augmented by 120%. Results of compressive strength of dolomite samples were repeated in mixtures containing vermiculite (an increase of 57%). While exploiting vermiculite in high percentages (20, 25, and 30) resulted in an extensive decrease in the permeability (94%), it was improved to an acceptable level (about 40%) after using vermiculite in combination with ordinary sand (lime sand). All dolomite and improved vermiculite mixtures, after combining vermiculite with ordinary sand, had appropriate performance in draining storm-urban runoff; such that in the weakest case, stimulated storm runoffs with heights of 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm were completely drained only after 17, 36, 59 and 87 seconds, respectively. Also, using vermiculite resulted in reducing the concrete weight (about 100 kg). Generally, although a little reduction in the permeability was seen, but using waste vermiculite and dolomite improved the mechanical properties of porous concrete significantly.

Prison Paideia

Imprisonment in America has become a form of civil death that blocks the capacity of ordinary people to develop intellectually, creatively, and ethically in ways more harmonious with the polity. Prison paideia in the grain of the sophists reconnects the imprisoned with the polis by challenging all assembled to inquire freely about the nomos that has shaped their perceptions of things; to make the weaker cases about those things, including themselves, stronger; and through dissoi logoi, to discover a culturally diverse aretê animating the demos they could become.

Cracking Problems in the Segments of Tabriz Metro Tunnel: A 3D Computational Study

This paper presents numerical models of tunnel segments with respect to the steel rebars using a finite element method under TBM thrust jack referring to the Tabriz metro line 2. The analyses have been carried out in five different steps. Numerical modellings have been done from the lowest ratio of reinforcement (the weakest case) to the highest ratio of it (the strongest case), which means that the curved longitudinal rebars were only placed within the concrete in the first step of the analysis, then other types of rebars are added gradually. The results indicated that stress contours in the z-direction (S33) of the model was approximately equal in all the steps. While distributed stress indicated more different behavior than the S33, which the maximum compressive and tensile distributed stresses are just applied on the reinforcement. The higher the reinforcement ratio, distributed stresses are increased step by step. So, it may be noticed that the reinforcement ratio was so crucial to the stresses which are needed to bear. A cracking form of the segment has been analyzed using different types of strains. The curved longitudinal rebars have a remarkable impact on cracking form in the z-direction in step 1, so that the magnitude of plastic strain in the z-direction (PE33) was remarkably decreased when they were placed within the concrete. Although adding the other main rebars has a negligible impact on the cracking form in z-direction whereas they can decline the plastic strain in the x-direction (PE11). The rebars which were added to the model in step 3, decrease the cracks around the shoulders of the segment. Nonetheless, all the rebars have not affected the segment behavior. Finally, in step 5, the cracking mechanism between the loading surfaces has completely changed. Also, displacement contours showed that the magnitude is decreased when the rebars are added to the reinforcement in every step.

Simulating Ellerman bomb-like events

Ellerman bombs (EBs) seem to be a part of a whole spectrum of phenomena that might have the same underlying physical mechanism, but with observed characteristics which pose a considerable challenge to models. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the proposed mechanism, applied to the circumstances of EBs, produce the observed characteristics. For this, realistic 3D MHD simulations are used. Two different cases are presented: the quiet Sun and an active region. Both runs confirm that EB-like brightenings coincide with hot and dense plasma which is in agreement with predictions of 1D and 2D modellings. The simulated EB-like phenomena assume the observed flame-like form, which depends on the complexity of the ongoing reconnection and the viewing angle. At the layers sampled by H$\alpha$-wings, near temperature minimum and below, the magnetic field topology seem to be always the same. The field lines there trace the base of the current sheet and the reconnected $\cap$-loops. So, the EB features are caused by reconnection of strong-field patches of opposite polarity in the regions where the surface flows are the strongest. The weakest cases among them can be reproduced quantitatively by the current simulations.

Diabatic Processes and the Evolution of Two Contrasting Summer Extratropical Cyclones

Extratropical cyclones are typically weaker and less frequent in summer as a result of differences in the background state flow and diabatic processes with respect to other seasons. Two extratropical cyclones were observed in summer 2012 with a research aircraft during the Diabatic Influences on Mesoscale Structures in Extratropical Storms (DIAMET) field campaign. The first cyclone deepened only down to 995 hPa; the second cyclone deepened down to 978 hPa and formed a potential vorticity (PV) tower, a frequent signature of intense cyclones. The objectives of this article are to quantify the effects of diabatic processes and their parameterizations on cyclone dynamics. The cyclones were analyzed through numerical simulations incorporating tracers for the effects of diabatic processes on potential temperature and PV. The simulations were compared with radar rainfall observations and dropsonde measurements. It was found that the observed maximum vapor flux in the stronger cyclone was twice as strong as in the weaker cyclone; the water vapor mass flow along the warm conveyor belt of the stronger cyclone was over half that typical in winter. The model overestimated water vapor mass flow by approximately a factor of 2 as a result of deeper structure in the rearward flow and humidity in the weaker case. An integral tracer interpretation is introduced, relating the tracers with cross-isentropic mass transport and circulation. It is shown that the circulation around the cyclone increases much more slowly than the amplitude of the diabatically generated PV tower. This effect is explained using the PV impermeability theorem.

The Role of Directors’ and Officers’ Insurance in Securities Fraud Class Action Settlements

AbstractBecause of previous data unavailability, it is unclear how important directors’ and officers’ (D&O) insurance is in securities fraud class action settlements. Using a unique data set of US D&O policies, we find that D&O insurance coverage is a less significant determinant of settlement amounts than estimated damages and proxies for the merits of cases. Limits on D&O insurance are related to settlements in only the weakest cases (those without allegations of accounting violations or institutional lead plaintiffs) where proxies for cases’ merits play a minimal role. Our findings suggest that most securities fraud class action settlements are meritorious and that accounting-related cases are a reasonable proxy for fraud.

SEC capture by revolving door: strengths and weaknesses in the evidence base

In the wake of the financial crisis, it has been common to assert that regulatory agencies are captured by the financial industry and that the revolving door is the key mechanism. We analyse a set of seven cases involving the US Securities and Exchange Commission to evaluate these claims. We find that the evidence for capture is variable and attempt to separate the stronger from the weaker cases. Even in the stronger cases of plausible capture, the precise role of the revolving door is not yet clear. Rather than motivating regulators to act favourably toward industry or causing them to adopt industry arguments uncritically, the revolving door seems to act as one type of a general influence that past experience has on regulators' perspectives. Thus, reform measures targeted at the revolving door should be more closely examined for their plausible benefits and costs.

Experimental investigation of the effect of temperature in semisolid casting using cooling slope method

In this work, the cooling slope method is employed to produce the A356 feedstock in semisolid processing. This paper discusses the effect of temperature on the final microstructure of A356 aluminum alloy in this method. These temperatures are casting temperature, mold temperature, and cooling slope plate temperature. The dendritic primary phase in the conventionally cast A356 alloy is transformed into a non-dendritic one in ingots cast over a cooling plate at casting temperature of 600 ℃, 615 ℃, 625 ℃, 650 ℃, and 680 ℃, and at condition of using a cooling system or without it. After pouring, the melt which becomes semisolid at the end of the plate is consequently poured into cylindrical steel mold at temperatures of 25 ℃, 200 ℃, and 400 ℃. The cooling slope is adjusted at the angle of 50° with respect to the horizontal plane and 500 mm length. It is found that the pouring, plate, and mold temperatures affect the size and morphology of α-Al phase. The effects of these are 22% decrease on average grain diameter and 8.5% increase on the shape factor at the weakest case. The results illustrated that by modifying the temperature the hardness of the specimens is increased. The results indicated that the highest uniformity with the grain size of ∼88 µm and maximum shape factor of 0.68 are related to pouring and mold temperature of 625 ℃ and 200 ℃, respectively using water cooling system.

Disclosing Adverse Earnings News and Litigation: The Importance of Large Market Declines

This study finds that large market-wide declines in stock prices are associated with higher litigation incidence and settlements even though market-wide events are legally irrelevant. The probability of litigation nearly doubles (from 0.29% to 0.55%), and the amount of settlements also doubles (from $5.0 million to $10.1 million) when earnings disclosures occur during a large market decline, even after controlling for the firm’s market-adjusted return. Further, judges with (without) specialized experience in securities litigation are more (less) likely to dismiss cases triggered by disclosures during large market declines. This pattern is consistent with experienced judges recognizing and dismissing weaker cases. Finally, managers are less likely to disclose adverse news at the end of trading days with large market declines. While we cannot definitively identify the motive behind this pattern, it is consistent with managers recognizing increased litigation risk during large market declines.

Finite speed of propagation and algebraic time decay of solutions to a generalized thin film equation

We consider a fourth order degenerate equation describingthin films over an inclined plane in this paper. A new approximatingproblem is introduced in order to obtain the local energy estimateof the solution. Based on combined use of local entropy estimate, localenergy estimate and the suitable extensions of Stampacchia's Lemma to systems,we obtain the finite speed of propagation property of strong solutions,which has been known for the case of strong slippage $ n<2, $ in the case ofweak slippage $ 2 \leq n < 3. $The long time behavior of positive classical solutions is also discussed.We apply the entropy dissipation method to quantify the explicit rate ofconvergence in the $ L^\infty $ norm of the solution, and thisimproves and extends the previous results.

On [formula omitted]-algebras generated by isometries with twisted commutation relations

In the theory of C⁎-algebras, interesting noncommutative structures arise as deformations of the tensor product, e.g. the rotation algebra Aϑ as a deformation of C(S1)⊗C(S1). We deform the tensor product of two Toeplitz algebras in the same way and study the universal C⁎-algebra T⊗ϑT generated by two isometries u and v such that uv=e2πiϑvu and u⁎v=e−2πiϑvu⁎, for ϑ∈R. Since the second relation implies the first one, we also consider the universal C⁎-algebra T⁎ϑT generated by two isometries u and v with the weaker relation uv=e2πiϑvu. Such a “weaker case” does not exist in the case of unitaries, and it turns out to be much more interesting than the twisted “tensor product case” T⊗ϑT. We show that T⊗ϑT is nuclear, whereas T⁎ϑT is not even exact. Also, we compute the K-groups and we obtain K0(T⁎ϑT)=Z and K1(T⁎ϑT)=0, and the same K-groups for T⊗ϑT.

Screening Legal Claims Based on Third-Party Litigation Finance Agreements and Other Signals of Quality

The advent of third-party litigation finance introduces a new gatekeeper to the legal process. Before deciding to lend money to a plaintiff, a litigation finance company will conduct at least some review and make an assessment of the quality of the case. Since litigation finance loans are generally non-recourse, a litigation finance company is likely to refuse to loan money to plaintiffs with the weakest cases. Such voluntary claim screening may improve social welfare by reducing the incidence of frivolous claims. But the volume of frivolous claims may still be higher than it would be in a world without third-party litigation finance. In particular, third-party litigation finance companies, which lend money to litigants to enable them to pursue cases, might sometimes finance claims that would have a very low probability of prevailing at trial on the assumption that such claims may encourage nuisance settlements. This danger may be greater than when a plaintiff self-finances, because the provision of outside financing may help make credible a threat to proceed to trial in the absence of a settlement. This possibility makes the social welfare consequences of alternative litigation finance an empirical question. Surely, many financed claims will be meritorious, in the probabilistic sense that if the plaintiffs were to receive financing, they would be more likely than not to win at trial. It is uncertain, however, whether the beneficial economic effects of enabling such claims outweigh the negative effects of facilitating claims that courts are highly likely to reject. The answer may vary based on the type of claim or the type of litigation finance arrangement.

Interpretation and Authenticity of the Lucianic Erotes

Introduction In Greek literature under the Roman Empire, a number of works debated the merits of women versus boys as objects of desire (Fleury 2007, 776). The Erotes contains such a debate between two characters named Charicles and Callicratidas, framed within a discussion between two others named Lycinus and Theomnestus. This dialogue has come to us among Lucian's works, where Lycinus would, at least initially represent the authorial persona, and Lycinus in this work does seem to have that role. However, the Erotes, regarded as inauthentic, was neglected through most of the twentieth century until Michel Foucault (1984) examined it as a document for the history of sexuality Following Foucault, David M. Halperin (1992) argued that even though Charicles pursues only women and Callicratidas only boys, the argument is about not heterosexuality versus homosexuality, but a difference of taste. (1) To trivialize the ancient debate as a question of taste or, at the other extreme, to denounce the Erotes as simply a defense of pederasty involves a loss of historical perspective. In Charicles' discourse, the issue of same-versus opposite-sex relations does assume serious importance, but the modern obsession over 'intergenerational' sex is strikingly absent in the ancient debate. It is true that Callicratidas and Charicles both assume bisexual attraction. Indeed, Charicles, who represents the 'heterosexual' preference, condemns same-sex relations as overindulgence in pleasure; similarly, Plutarch (Erotikos 766E), who also championed women, felt obliged to assert that women are just as desirable as boys. Still, Charicles wishes to ban all same-sex relations, regardless of age. The only mention of age in the Erotes occurs when he asserts the conventional Greek view that adult males are no longer desirable. Callicratidas envisions man-boy romances as evolving into equal relationships lasting to old age--a less conventional vision that, however, is also evidenced by, e.g., Plato's Symposium and the early Stoic view of eros (love/desire) leading to philia (love/friendship). Whereas Foucault and Halperin were concerned more with sexuality than with a literary interpretation of the Erotes, Simon Goldhill (1995, 102-11) and Michael Klabunde (2001) compared the debate here with women versus boys arguments in Plutarch and Achilles Tatius. While this comparative method is a logical approach to the highly mimetic literature of the Second Sophistic, a full appreciation of the Erotes has actually been impaired by the habitual desire to contextualize it within that debate without first understanding its internal dynamics. Plutarch's Erotikos was an innovative essay, a major station in an apparent shift of Greek sexual interest from boys to women in the imperial age; and the Erotes too certainly was a response to that shift. However, the Erotes does not advance the philosophical debate--Lycinus and Theomnestus share conventional values, and the position that is ultimately affirmed is traditional. Rather, the Erotes is a sophisticated literary composition that must be understood rhetorically and dramatically as well as philosophically. In the present paper I begin with a closer reading of the Erotes in order to isolate what is unique about this work, which turns out to be remarkably Lucianic in content and values. Then I will demonstrate its authenticity by reexamining the key issue of its style. Interpretation As stated above, the debate here is not a philosophical dialogue, it is an amusingly formal rhetorical contest--amusing because it is held in private, as a kind of duel to settle a grudge. Both speakers have some rhetorical background, (2) and they each have one turn to speak. When Lycinus is obliged to pick a winner, he assesses their rhetorical skill, and even credits them for covering all of the topical arguments (50)--which would hardly distinguish them philosophically. Lycinus congratulates Charicles for his brave defense of what Lycinus considers the weaker case (52), praise that a philosopher would not appreciate. …

On the importance of initializing the stochastic part of the atmosphere for forecasting the 1997/1998 El Niño

The importance of initializing atmospheric intra-seasonal (stochastic) variations for prediction of the onset of the 1997/1998 El Nino is examined using the Australian Bureau of Meteorology coupled seasonal forecast model. A suite of 9-month forecasts was initialized on the 1st December 1996. Observed ocean initial conditions were used together with five different atmospheric initial conditions that sample a range of possible initial states of intra-seasonal (stochastic) variability, especially the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), which is considered the primary stochastic variability of relevance to El Nino evolution. The atmospheric initial states were generated from a suite of atmosphere-only integrations forced by observed sea surface temperatures (SST). To the extent that low frequency variability of the tropical atmosphere is forced by slow variations in SST, these atmospheric states should all represent realistic low frequency atmospheric variability that was present in December 1996. However, to the extent that intra-seasonal variability is not constrained by SST, they should capture a range of intra-seasonal states, especially variations in the activity, phase and amplitude of the MJO. For each of these five states, a 20-member ensemble of coupled model forecasts was generated by the addition of small random perturbations to the SST field at the initial time. The ensemble mean from all five sets of forecasts resulted in El Nino but three of the sets produced substantially greater warming by months 4–5 in the NINO3.4 region compared to the other two. The warmer group stemmed from stronger intra-seasonal westerly wind anomalies associated with the MJO that propagated eastward into the central Pacific during the first 1–2 months of the forecast. These were largely absent in the colder group; the weakest of the colder group developed strong easterly wind anomalies, relative to the grand ensemble mean, that propagated into the central Pacific early in the forecast, thereby generating significantly weaker downwelling Kelvin waves in comparison to the warmer group. The strong reduction in downwelling Kelvin waves in the weakest case acted to limit the warming in the eastern Pacific, resulting in a “Modoki” type El Nino that is more focused in the central Pacific. Our results suggest that the intra-seasonal stochastic component of the atmospheric initial condition has an important and potentially predictable impact on the forecasts of the initial warming and flavour of the 1997/1998 El Nino. However, to the extent that atmospheric intra-seasonal variability is not predictable beyond a month or two, these results imply a limit to the accuracy with which the strength and perhaps the spatial distribution of an El Nino can ultimately be predicted. These results do not preclude a predictable role of the MJO and other intra-seasonal stochastic variability at longer lead times if some aspects of the stochastic variability are preconditioned by the evolving state of El Nino or other low frequency boundary forcing.

On One-way One-bit O (One)-message Cellular Automata

Cellular automata are one-dimensional arrays of interconnected interacting finite automata, also called cells. Here, we investigate one of the weakest class of cellular automata, namely the class of real-time one-way cellular automata. Additionally, we impose two restrictions on the inter-cell communication. First, the number of allowed uses of the links between cells is bounded. Moreover, the amount of information to be communicated in one time step is bounded by a constant being independent from the given automaton. In the weakest case, we consider cellular automata with one-way information flow where each cell receives one bit of information exactly once. In this case, we obtain a characterization of the regular languages for unary alphabets and the acceptance of non-context-free languages for non-unary alphabets. Next, a proper language hierarchy can be derived when increasing the number of allowed uses of the links between cells step by step. Finally, decidability problems of these restricted cellular automata are studied and undecidability of almost all problems can be proven even in the most restricted case of one-way one-bit communication.

A study of the effect of overshooting deep convection on the water content of the TTL and lower stratosphere from Cloud Resolving Model simulations

Abstract. Simulations of overshooting, tropical deep convection using a Cloud Resolving Model with bulk microphysics are presented in order to examine the effect on the water content of the TTL (Tropical Tropopause Layer) and lower stratosphere. This case study is a subproject of the HIBISCUS (Impact of tropical convection on the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere at global scale) campaign, which took place in Bauru, Brazil (22° S, 49° W), from the end of January to early March 2004. Comparisons between 2-D and 3-D simulations suggest that the use of 3-D dynamics is vital in order to capture the mixing between the overshoot and the stratospheric air, which caused evaporation of ice and resulted in an overall moistening of the lower stratosphere. In contrast, a dehydrating effect was predicted by the 2-D simulation due to the extra time, allowed by the lack of mixing, for the ice transported to the region to precipitate out of the overshoot air. Three different strengths of convection are simulated in 3-D by applying successively lower heating rates (used to initiate the convection) in the boundary layer. Moistening is produced in all cases, indicating that convective vigour is not a factor in whether moistening or dehydration is produced by clouds that penetrate the tropopause, since the weakest case only just did so. An estimate of the moistening effect of these clouds on an air parcel traversing a convective region is made based on the domain mean simulated moistening and the frequency of convective events observed by the IPMet (Instituto de Pesquisas Meteorológicas, Universidade Estadual Paulista) radar (S-band type at 2.8 Ghz) to have the same 10 dBZ echo top height as those simulated. These suggest a fairly significant mean moistening of 0.26, 0.13 and 0.05 ppmv in the strongest, medium and weakest cases, respectively, for heights between 16 and 17 km. Since the cold point and WMO (World Meteorological Organization) tropopause in this region lies at ~15.9 km, this is likely to represent direct stratospheric moistening. Much more moistening is predicted for the 15–16 km height range with increases of 0.85–2.8 ppmv predicted. However, it would be required that this air is lofted through the tropopause via the Brewer Dobson circulation in order for it to have a stratospheric effect. Whether this is likely is uncertain and, in addition, the dehydration of air as it passes through the cold trap and the number of times that trajectories sample convective regions needs to be taken into account to gauge the overall stratospheric effect. Nevertheless, the results suggest a potentially significant role for convection in determining the stratospheric water content. Sensitivity tests exploring the impact of increased aerosol numbers in the boundary layer suggest that a corresponding rise in cloud droplet numbers at cloud base would increase the number concentrations of the ice crystals transported to the TTL, which had the effect of reducing the fall speeds of the ice and causing a ~13% rise in the mean vapour increase in both the 15–16 and 16–17 km height ranges, respectively, when compared to the control case. Increases in the total water were much larger, being 34% and 132% higher for the same height ranges, but it is unclear whether the extra ice will be able to evaporate before precipitating from the region. These results suggest a possible impact of natural and anthropogenic aerosols on how convective clouds affect stratospheric moisture levels.