Waterlogging Stress Research Articles

Plant responses to simultaneous stress of waterlogging and shade: amplified or hierarchical effects?

• Community ecologists often assume a hierarchy of environmental sieves to predict the impact of multiple stresses on species distribution. We tested whether this assumption corresponds to physiological responses using impact of water level and shade in wetland vegetation as a model. • Seedlings of four wetland species were grown under full light and simulated canopy shade, both in drained and waterlogged soils. When subject to both stresses simultaneously, waterlogging and shade independently affected growth of the two waterlogging tolerant species. For the intolerant species, however, waterlogging had the largest impact and the additional effect of shade was smaller than the effect of shade in drained soil. Soil flooding decreased specific leaf area but only if plants were in full light. Waterlogging did also not constrain a higher investment in stems of shaded plants. • These results demonstrate that light limitation in flooded habitats only plays a role if species can tolerate waterlogging and therefore correspond with the notion that water level determines the potential species pool and that standing crop consequently determines which species can actually persist.

Responses of the Weed Parthenium bysterophorus (Asteraceae) to the Stem Gall-inducing Weevil Conotrachelus albocinereus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A stem-galling weevil Conotrachelus albocinereus Fiedler 1940 from Argentina is being field released to regulate populations of the weed Parthenium hysterophorus in Queensland, Australia since 1995. In this paper we report the tissue and metabolic responses in P hysterophorus in the context of the biology and feeding behaviour of the weevil. C albocinereus induces elliptical galls often on the main shoot axes and rarely on the terminal and axillary meristems of the host plant. From oviposition through gall maturation, the structure and metabolism of the host-plant tissues, especially at the gall region, change continuously to accommodate pressure inflicted by the feeding larva. The host plant shows re-direction of its vital metabolites to the gall, and to the metaplasied cells of nutrition in particular. In mature galls, the pith parenchyma elements turn lignified. Larval feeding fractures the vertical continuity of vascular tissues, which affects the host plant's overall metabolism. As the larva tunnels the shoot column, it places the frass at the fissured vascular sites. That activity initiates necrosis and eventual death of the living cells of the vascular tissue complex. Such a development induces water-logging stress in the gall and the evapotranspirational system displays contrasting responses. Permanently closed stomatal apertures and abnormally inflated substomatal chambers indicate that P hysterophorus suffers moisture-stress with cecidogenesis. The larval performance triggers moisture inundation in the galled shoot and this appears to be an advantage in using this weevil in the control of P hysterophorus.

Losses in Wheat Due to Waterlogging

Waterlogging stress is one of the limiting factors influencing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production, especially in the lower Mississippi valley. A rain‐shelter experiment was designed to evaluate the trend response of nine wheat genotypes to four levels of waterlogging treatment: 0, 10, 20, and 30 d of flooding. Genotypes planted in polyvinilchloride (PVC) containers 25 cm long by 10 cm in diameter were waterlogged in plastic tanks under controlled rain conditions. Results indicated significant linear responses for kernels per head and tillers per plant, significant linear and quadratic responses for yield and chlorophyll content, and significant linear and cubic responses for plant height. The linear trend was the most important component, explaining from 92 to 99% of the variability due to waterlogging. Linear prediction equations were obtained to describe the relationship between different traits and waterlogging stress. Losses in yield and yield components were evaluated in a field experiment with 15 genotypes under control and waterlogging treatment. Average yield losses of 44% were mainly caused by a decrease in tiller number and kernels per head. Under waterlogging treatment, tiller number and kernels per head were reduced by 41 and 20%, respectively. Screening of wheat genotypes revealed the potential for waterlogging tolerance in breeding material and identified tolerant cultivars useful for waterlogged environments. ‘Terral LA 422’, ‘Shelby’, and ‘Pioneer 2691’ were the most adapted genotypes for waterlogging treatments. Because of a significant interaction with waterlogging treatment, some of the high‐yielding genotypes under non‐flooded conditions such as ‘Coker 9663’ and ‘FFR 502W’ showed low tolerance to waterlogging. The results provided information on the methods quantifying losses from waterlogging and identified selection criteria for waterlogging tolerance in wheat.

Losses in Wheat Due to Waterlogging

Waterlogging stress is one of the limiting factors influencing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production, especially in the lower Mississippi valley. A rain-shelter experiment was designed to evaluate the trend response of nine wheat genotypes to four levels of waterlogging treatment: 0, 10, 20, and 30 d of flooding. Genotypes planted in polyvinilchloride (PVC) containers 25 cm long by 10 cm in diameter were waterlogged in plastic tanks under controlled rain conditions. Results indicated significant linear responses for kernels per head and tillers per plant, significant linear and quadratic responses for yield and chlorophyll content, and significant linear and cubic responses for plant height. The linear trend was the most important component, explaining from 92 to 99% of the variability due to waterlogging. Linear prediction equations were obtained to describe the relationship between different traits and waterlogging stress. Losses in yield and yield components were evaluated in a field experiment with 15 genotypes under control and waterlogging treatment. Average yield losses of 44% were mainly caused by a decrease in tiller number and kernels per head. Under waterlogging treatment, tiller number and kernels per head were reduced by 41 and 20%, respectively. Screening of wheat genotypes revealed the potential for waterlogging tolerance in breeding material and identified tolerant cultivars useful for waterlogged environments. ‘Terral LA 422’, ‘Shelby’, and ‘Pioneer 2691’ were the most adapted genotypes for waterlogging treatments. Because of a significant interaction with waterlogging treatment, some of the high-yielding genotypes under non-flooded conditions such as ‘Coker 9663’ and ‘FFR 502W’ showed low tolerance to waterlogging. The results provided information on the methods quantifying losses from waterlogging and identified selection criteria for waterlogging tolerance in wheat.

Alleviation of waterlogging damage in winter rape by application of uniconazole: Effects on morphological characteristics, hormones and photosynthesis

Oilseed rape seedlings ( Brassica napus L.) treated with uniconazole were transplanted at the five-leaf stage into specially designed experimental containers, and then exposed to waterlogging for 3 weeks. Pre-treatment of rape seedlings with uniconazole significantly increased seedling height, shoot width, number of green leaves and leaf area per plant, and consequently the shoot, root, and total dry weight after waterlogging. Following waterlogging stress, the uniconazole treated plants had a significantly improved growth including plant height, length and width of leaves, number of green leaves, leaf area per plant, and canopy width at the stem elongation stage, and plant height, stem width, and root, shoot and total dry weight at the flowering stage. At harvest, uniconazole treatment increased the number of primary and secondary branches, seeds per pod, and number of effective pods in branches and in terminal raceme after waterlogging treatment. The uniconazole-induced increase in the number of pods per plant and number of seeds per pod were the two yield components responsible for the significantly greater seed and oil yields obtained from the uniconazole plus waterlogging treated plants, over either the control or waterlogged plants. Uniconazole also reduced waterlogging-induced rise in the erucic acid content of the seeds. The modification of GA 3, zeatin, ABA and ethylene levels due to pre-treatment of rape seedlings with uniconazole might have helped to delay the chlorosis and senescence induced by waterlogging. Uniconazole treatment also increased the leaf photosynthetic rates of waterlogged plants, in part, due to the changes in leaf conductance and hormone levels which ultimately affected various physiological processes.

Detection of Salt and Waterlogging Stresses in Alnus Cordata by Measurement of Leaf Chlorophyll Fluorescence

The measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence for use as a rapid diagnostic tool which detected stress interactions in Italian alder (Alnus cordata Desf.) is reported. Containerised trees in well-drained or waterlogged conditions were subjected to foliar applications of various concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCI). Measurements of leaf chlorophyll fluorescence provided strong correlations with visual necrosis (r2adj = 63.5%), and cell electrolyte leakage (r2adj = 84.6%). Leaf chlorophyll fluorescence was not correlated with stem growth. Foliar applications of NaCI increased sodium and chloride concentration in leaves irrespective of whether trees were planted in well-drained or waterlogged compost, with higher leaf Na and Cl concentrations reflecting the application of stronger salt solutions. Except for decreased calcium, phosphorous, magnesium and potassium in leaf tissue from trees grown in waterlogged compost and sprayed with distilled water or 2% NaCI, no treatment effects upon macronutrient concentrations were identified. Chlorophyll fluorescence values < 0.8 indicated the onset of stress. The opportunities offered by measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence to provide a diagnostic tool for arborists are discussed.

Relationship between mineral coating on roots and yield performance of wheat under waterlogging stress

Waterlogging stress limits the productivity of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend. Thell.) in many parts of the world. When wheat is grown under waterlogged conditions, a reddish-brown mineral coating can form on the epidermal surface of the roots. In wetland plants such as rice, the amount of mineral coating formed on root surfaces is positively related to yield. This study was conducted to determine whether mineral coating on the roots of wheat is related to yield potential under waterlogged conditions. Root mineral coatings formed under waterlogged conditions were studied in 12 cultivars and two breeding lines over three years of greenhouse pot studies. Soil redox potential in the waterlogged treatment ranged between -46 and 171 mV, and grain yield was suppressed by 28-49% compared to well-drained controls. Mineral coating formed on the roots from the waterlogged treatment was determined to be composed primarily of iron, based on ICP elemental analysis, iron-specific staining, and ion-mapping by scanning electron microscopy using an X-ray detector. Of 11 elements quantified by ICP spectroscopy, six were significantly affected by waterlogging treatment, and three of these, Fe, Mn and P, were well-correlated negatively to yield. Aerenchyma formation in the heavily coated waterlogged roots appeared to disrupt the internal root structure, and exceeded 40% of crosssectional area in one cultivar. Unlike rice, which shows a positive relationship between oxygen release from roots, grain yield and mineral coating, in winter wheat, the amount of mineral coating is negatively related to grain yield under waterlogged conditions.

Response of rainfed bread and durum wheat to source, level and timing of nitrogen fertilizer on two Ethiopian Vertisols: II. N uptake, recovery and efficiency

In trials conducted at 2 highland Vertisol sites in Ethiopia in 1990 and 1991, 2 locally popular wheat cultivars, 1 spring bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and 1 durum wheat (T. durum Desf.), were supplied with nitrogen (N) fertilizer at 0, 60 and 120 kg N ha−1 in the form of large granular urea (LGU), standard urea prills or ammonium sulfate. N was applied all at sowing, all at mid-tillering or split-applied between these two stages (1/3:2/3). While durum wheat exhibited the highest N concentration in grain and straw, bread wheat, because of its higher productivity, resulted in a greater grain and total N uptake. In general, split application of N and use of LGU as N source enhanced grain and total N uptake, apparent N recovery and agronomic efficiency of N, particularly under severe water-logging stress. Where significant, the interactions among the experimental factors substantiated the superior responsiveness of the bread wheat cultivar to fertilizer N, and the beneficial effects of split N application and LGU as an N source. Split application of N tended to nullify the positive effects of LGU, presumably by approximating the delayed release of N achieved with LGU. Considering the potential benefits to Ethiopian peasant farmers and consumers, split application of N should be advocated, particularly on water-logged Vertisols; LGU could be an advantageous N source assuming a cost comparable to the conventional N source urea.

Allocation plasticity and modular structure in clonal graminoids in response to waterlogging

Three clonal rhizomatous grarninoids ( Carex gracilis, C. vesicaria and Calamagrostis canescens), co-dominants of Central European marshlands, were examined for their response to waterlogging. A three-year growth study was carried with treatments where the water level was (a) below, (b) at, and (c) above the soil surface to assess the changes in allocation of plant biomass and modular structure. In waterlogged plants total biomass production was lower. The relatively greater shoot systems of waterlogged plants were characterized by the production of a greater number ot tiller modules (of the order of 20%). Roots were the most supressed organs both in sedges and C. canescens. Higher leaf area ratios and specific leaf areas in stressed plants indicate the relative enlargement of photosynthetic structures where stems form a significant component of the shoot (LWR 0.5 as in sedges) then above-ground biomass and rhizomes in stressed plants increased and leaf area index became higher. Variation of the mean module biomass in particular species was also associated with the LWR characteristics: modules of Carex gracilis and C. vesicaria were stable in biomass in all the treatments and reached 0.97 + 0.04 g and 0.44 -I- 0.03 g, respectively; in Calamagrostis the biomass of tillers varied. The number of modules increased in all species under waterlogging regardless of the architectural and re.allocation differences between species. The increase in clonai modules is regarded as a general adaptive response to the stress of waterlogging.

Response to Salt and Waterlogging Stress of Ten Taxa of Acacia Selected From Naturally Saline Areas of Western Australia

Ten taxa of Acacia were selected from areas of moderate to high soil salinity (electrical conductivities of saturated soil paste extracts (ECe) between 1000 mS m--1 and 4800 mS m-1 at 50-600 mm depth) and sodicity to test the tolerance of young, symbiotic plants to increasing levels of salinity both with and without waterlogging. Nodulated plants, 3 months old, were grown in glasshouse experiments which consisted of four treatments: non-saline drained control (12 weeks); saline drained (12 weeks); non-saline waterlogged (5 weeks); and saline waterlogged (5 weeks). Acacia cyclops, A. brumalis, A. redolens (Ravensthorpe) and A. aff. lineolata had 100% survival after 12 weeks irrigation with saline solution (final ECw = 9500 mS m-1). Generally, the species tested were sensitive to waterlogging with A. patagiata, A. cyclops and A. brumalis being the most sensitive, having 19-44% mortality with no salt in the solution. The combined treatment of salt and waterlogging greatly increased the mortality of plants, with four species having > 70% dead after 5 weeks treatment (ECw = 3900 mS m-1). A. aff. lineolata and A. mutabilis subsp. ,stipulifera were highly tolerant of salt plus waterlogging, with 100% and 96% survival respectively. In salt plus waterlogged treatments, Na+ concentration in phyllodes of all taxa exceeded (0.37-2.13 mmol g-1 dry wt) that taken up by plants in freely drained salt treatments (0.03-0.42 mmol g-1 dry wt). Taxa with the slowest rates of growth tended to accumulate the highest concentrations of Na+ in the uppermost phyllodes. Provenances of A. redolens and A. patagiata collected from sites of high soil salinity (ECe > 2200 mS m-1) had less than half the Na+ concentration in uppermost phyllodes (0.22 mmol -1 dry wt) at the termination of the salt treatment, compared with provenances of the same species collected from moderately saline areas (ECe = 1100 mS m-1). This indicates that Acacia provenances collected from the most saline sites had greater potential to survive high levels of external salinity in the longer term than those from less saline sites.

A growth analysis of waterlogging damage in mung bean (Phaseolus aureus).

Mung beans (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) were grown for 2 weeks in gravel-vermiculite soilless mix in a growth chamber and subjected to a 1-week waterlogging period followed by a 1-week recovery period. Sequential harvests were made to determine the time course of effects of waterlogging and subsequent recovery on growth parameters by techniques of growth analysis. Root dry matter was the first to be affected, along with an increase in leaf dry matter and specific leaf weight. After a 1-week waterlogging period, specific leaf weight had more than doubled in the stressed plants. Leaf area declined in relation to the control plants as did the ratio of root dry matter to shoot dry matter. During the recovery period there was an increase in the dry matter allocation to the roots relative to the shoot. Specific leaf weight fell to control levels although the rate of leaf area elaboration did not increase during this time, suggesting a redistribution of stored assimilates from the leaves. Net assimilation rate increased during the waterlogging period, probably due to a restriction in root metabolism and reduced translocation out of the leaf rather than to an increase in photosynthesis. Net assimilation rate of waterlogged plants was severely reduced compared with control plants during the recovery period. Both relative growth rate and leaf area duration declined during the waterlogging period and declined further subsequent to the waterlogging treatment. The results illustrate the interrelationships between root and shoot carbon budgets in mung bean during response to the stress of waterlogging.

Water relations and growth responses of Uniola paniculata (sea oats) to soil moisture and water-table depth.

This study examined the water relations and growth responses of Uniola paniculata (sea oats) to (1) three watering regimes and (2) four controlled water-table depths. Uniola paniculata is frequently the dominant foredune grass along much of the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, but its distribution is limited in Louisiana. Throughout most of its range, U. paniculata tends to dominate and be well adapted to the most exposed areas of the dune where soil moisture is low. Dune elevations in Louisiana, however, rarely exceed 2 m, and as a result the depth to the water table is generally shallow. We hypothesized that if U. paniculata grows very near the water-table, as it may in Louisiana, it will display signs of water-logging stress. This study demonstrated that excessive soil moisture resulting from inundation or shallow water-table depth has a greater negative effect on plant growth than do low soil moisture conditions. Uniola paniculata's initial response to either drought or inundation was a reduction of leaf (stomatal) conductance and a concomitant decrease in leaf elongation. However, plants could recover from drought-induced leaf xylem pressures of less than-3.3 MPa, but prolonged inundation killed the plants. Waterlogging stress (manifested in significantly reduced leaf stomatal conductances and reduced biomass production) was observed in plants grown at 0.3 m above the water table. This stress was relieved, however, at an elevation of 0.9 m above the water table. As the elevation was increased from 0.9 to 2.7 m, there were no signs of drought stress nor a stimulation in growth due to lower soil moisture. We concluded that although U. paniculata's moisture-conserving traits adapt it well to the dune environment, this species can grow very well at an elevation of only 0.9 m above the water table. Field measurements of water-table depth in three Louisiana populations averaged about 1.3 m. Therefore, the observed limited distribution of U. paniculata along the Louisiana coast apparently cannot be explained by water-logging stress induced by the low dune elevations and the corresponding shallow water-table depth.

Growth and yield of soybeans under wet soil culture and conventional furrow irrigation in south-eastern Australia

An experiment was conducted to determine the growth and yield responses of two soybean cultivars (Ridley and Sab40) grown on raised beds with continuous water applied in furrows (wet soil culture, WSC), and with conventional furrow irrigation applied at soil water deficits of 35 mm (F) and 70 mm (I). The early growth and leaf area development of both cultivars was reduced by both waterlogging (WSC) and water stress (1) effects compared to the frequently irrigated (F) treatment. Both cultivars acclimated to the WSC conditions and resumed active growth rates comparable to the F treatment. Excessive dry matter accumulation into leaves and stems of Ridley under WSC resulted in severe lodging and significantly reduced grain yield compared to Ridley under F irrigation. The physiological analysis presented showed that under WSC Ridley had a substantially lower light use efficiency compared the F irrigated crop during reproductive growth. It is hypothesised that lodging during this period reduced photosynthate supply as a result of detrimental changes in the pattern of leaf illumination throughout the canopy. The cultivar Sab40 did not lodge under WSC and grain yield was not significantly different from the F irrigated treatment.

Response of Six Grape Cultivars to the Combined Effects of High Salinity and Rootzone Waterlogging

Abstract The effect of rootzone salinity (0 to 90 mM NaCl) on shoot growth of 6 grape cultivars [‘Sultana’ (syn. ‘Thompson Seedless’), ‘Carbernet Sauvignon’, ‘Crouchen’, ‘Shiraz’, ‘Doradillo’ and ‘Palomino’] grown as rooted cuttings was determined in sand cultures. Relative shoot growth values over 23 days with salt were ‘Palomino’ 100, ‘Sultana’ 94, ‘Shiraz’ 87, ‘Crouchen’ 83, ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ 63, and ‘Doradillo’ 59. Application of concurrent waterlogging (anaerobiosis) stress on the root system depressed shoot growth more than salt stress alone and changed the ranking for shoot growth. Waterlogging increased total uptake of Na and Cl, increased the amount of Na and Cl transported into the shoots, and resulted in visible leaf damage within 5 days of the onset of the waterlogging.