Waterborne Pathogens Research Articles

Advancing rainwater treatment technologies for irrigation of urban agriculture: A pathway toward innovation

Urban agriculture (UA) has emerged for local food security since the 1960s. However, the access to sufficient and safe irrigation water remains a significant constraint. Municipal water supply, though commonly used in UA practices, proves unsustainable due to high costs, intensive energy consumption, and limited availability in many vacant urban spaces. In contrast, rainwater harvesting (RWH) exhibits a potential as a non-traditional water supply for urban farming. This article aims to provide insights into the advantages and challenges associated with RWH for UA irrigation, analyze existing low-cost RWH treatment technologies, and identify a visionary way toward innovative, new-generation RWH treatment processes in UA practices. Despite a promising water source, harvested rainwater is challenged for crop irrigation owing to the presence of various contaminants (e.g., waterborne pathogens, potentially toxic metals and metalloids, and synthetic organic chemicals). While established RWH treatment processes (e.g., first flush diversion, sedimentation, solar disinfection, chlorination, UV irradiation, granular filtration, and bio-sand filtration) can remove certain pollutants, they cannot offer viable treatment solutions for UA irrigation due to different technical, economic, and social restrictions. Particularly, their capacity to reliably remove contaminants of emerging concern in runoff remains limited or uncertain. Consequently, it is essential to develop next-generation RWH treatment technologies tailored specifically for UA irrigation. To this end, three fundamental principles are recommended. First, the focus should be on technically viable, low-cost, simple-operation, and easy-maintenance treatment technologies capable of simultaneously addressing traditional and emerging runoff contaminants, while minimizing the production of undesirable treatment byproducts. Second, advancing the understanding of the water, soil, and crop interactions enables the development of “right” RWH treatment processes for irrigation of “right” crops at a “right” place. Last, crop nutrients, if possible, are retained in rainwater to reduce the nutrient demand for crop production. The insights and perspectives have far-reaching implications for water conservation, stormwater management, and the integration of water, food, and energy systems within the urban environment.

A 'Frugal' EGFET Sensor for Waterborne H2S.

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a toxic gas soluble in water, H2Saq, as a weak acid. Since H2Saq usually originates from the decomposition of faecal matter, its presence also indicates sewage dumping and possible parallel waterborne pathogens associated with sewage. We here present a low footprint ('frugal') H2Saq sensor as an accessible resource for water quality monitoring. As a sensing mechanism, we find the chemical affinity of thiols to gold (Au) translates to H2Saq. When an Au electrode is used as a control gate (CG) or floating gate (FG) electrode in the electric double layer (EDL) pool of an extended gate field effect transistor (EGFET) sensor, EGFET transfer characteristics shift along the CG voltage axis in response to H2Saq. We rationalise this by the interface potential from the adsorption of polar H2S molecules to the electrode. The sign of the shift changes between Au CG and Au FG, and cancels when both electrodes are Au. The sensor is selective for H2Saq over the components of urine, nor does urine suppress the sensor's ability to detect H2Saq. Electrodes can be recovered for repeated use by washing in 1M HCl. Quantitatively, CG voltage shift is fitted by a Langmuir-Freundlich (LF) model, supporting dipole adsorption over an ionic (Nernstian) response mechanism. We find a limit-of-detection of 14.9 nM, 100 times below potability.

Improved biosensing of Legionella by integrating filtration and immunomagnetic separation of the bacteria retained in filters

A novel approach is presented that combines filtration and the direct immunomagnetic separation of the retained bacteria Legionella in filters, for further electrochemical immunosensing. This strategy allows for the separation and preconcentration of the water-borne pathogen from high-volume samples, up to 1000 mL. The limit of detection of the electrochemical immunosensor resulted in 100 CFU mL−1 and improved up to 0.1 CFU mL−1 when the preconcentration strategy was applied in 1 L of sample (103-fold improvement). Remarkably, the immunosensor achieves the limit of detection in less than 2.5 h and simplified the analytical procedure. This represents the lowest concentration reported to date for electrochemical immunosensing of Legionella cells without the need for pre-enrichment or DNA amplification. Furthermore, the study successfully demonstrates the extraction of bacteria retained on different filtering materials using immunomagnetic separation, highlighting the high efficiency of the magnetic particles to pull out the bacteria directly from solid materials. This promising feature expands the applicability of the method beyond water systems for detecting bacteria retained in air filters of air conditioning units by directly performing the immunomagnetic separation in the filters.Graphical abstract

The effectiveness of endolysin ENDO-1252 from Salmonella bacteriophage-1252 against nontyphoidal Salmonella enterica.

Salmonella enterica (S. enterica) is the most common food and waterborne pathogen worldwide. The growing trend of antibiotic-resistant S. enterica poses severe healthcare threats. As an alternative antimicrobial agent, bacteriophage-encoded endolysins (endolysins) are a potential agent in controlling S. enterica infection. Endolysins are enzymes that particularly target the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cells, leading to their rupture and destruction. However, the application of endolysins against Gram-negative bacteria is limited due to the presence of the outer membrane in the cell wall, which hinders the permeation of externally applied endolysins. This study aimed the prokaryotic expression system to produce the recombinant endolysin ENDO-1252, encoded by the Salmonella bacteriophage-1252 associated with S. Enteritidis. Subsequently, ENDO-1252 had strong lytic activity not only against S. Enteritidis but also against S. Typhimurium. In addition, ENDO-1252 showed optimal thermostability and lytic activity at 25°C with a pH of 7.0. In combination with 0.1mM EDTA, the effect of 120µg of ENDO-1252 for 6 hours exhibited the highest lytic activity, resulting in a reduction of 1.15 log or 92.87% on S. Enteritidis. These findings suggest that ENDO-1252 can be used as a potential and innovative antibacterial agent for controlling the growth of S. Enteritidis.

Hygienic status of water in some poultry farms with special reference to its hygienic control with bacteriophage

Animal welfare is a major concern these days, which related to the environmental factors that have direct effect on animal health and production. Water and food hygiene from the main factors which must be considered inside the livestock farms. This study aims to the assessment of hygienic status of drinking water in some poultry farms with biocontrol of some water borne pathogens which poses a severe threat to bird’s health. Water samples were collected from 6 poultry farms and assessed chemically, physically and bacteriologically for Salmonella and E. coli. Naturally occurring phages from sewage water were isolated and characterized, and the antimicrobial effect of isolated phages against the Salmonella and E. coli isolates were assessed. In our study, the pH, hardness and ammonia of the drinking water given to the broiler in the studied farms were unhygienic in summer than in winter and exceeded the recommended standard specially during the summer. E. coli and Salmonella isolation on the level of season, during the winter season, out of 30 water samples 9 were positive for E. coli and 5 were positive for Salmonella. Meanwhile, in summer season out of 30 water samples 12 (40%) were positive for E. coli and 10 (33.3%) were positive for Salmonella. The three Salmonella serovars found in the water samples were S. Typhimurium, S. Thompson and S. Newport and S. Typhimurium had the most permanent serotype. One phenotypic phage was isolated from sewage water which was categorized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) into Straboviridae family. Isolated water borne pathogens (Salmonella and E. coli) were susceptible to phage infection. Therefore, isolated phages have antimicrobial action. The results suggested that the naturally isolated bacteriophage could be used as a powerful and ecofriendly antibacterial agent in poultry farm to overcome water borne pathogens.

Elevated temperature and decreased salinity impacts on exogenous Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection of eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica.

Anthropogenic carbon emissions have resulted in drastic oceanic changes, including increased acidity, increased temperature, and decreased salinity. Anthropogenic carbon emissions have resulted in drastic oceanic changes, including increased acidity, increased temperature, and decreased salinity. Few studies have directly assessed the compounded impact of alterations to oceanic conditions on oyster physiology and the relation to the presence of V. parahaemolyticus. This project investigated the relationship between projected climate scenarios and their influence on both eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, and the aquatic bacteria, Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Specifically, we examined whether an increase in water temperature and/or decrease in salinity would impair oyster resistance to V. parahaemolyticus, a human food and waterborne pathogen. Using a culture-dependent approach, our data revealed that the alterations in environmental conditions did not significantly impact the numbers of V. parahaemolyticus numbers within oyster hemolymph or tissues. However, we did observe a dramatic increase in the total amount of bacteria and pathogenic native Vibrio species, Vibrio aestuarianus and Vibrio harveyi. Despite detecting V. parahaemolyticus in most tissues at 7 days post-challenge, oysters were able to reduce bacterial levels below our limit of detection by 28 days of exposure. Furthermore, in our second experimental trial exploring single vs. multiple inoculation of bacteria, we observed that oysters were either able to reduce total bacterial levels to pre-treatment burdens (i.e., below our limit of detection) or die. This study demonstrates that the synergistic effects of elevated temperature and decreased salinity do not inhibit oysters from preventing the long-term colonization of exogenous V. parahaemolyticus. However, our data do show these environmental stressors impact oyster physiology and the native microbiota. This can lead to the proliferation of opportunistic pathogens, which could have impacts on oyster population numbers and ecosystem and human health.

Impact of Opinion on Disease Transmission With Waterborne Pathogen and Stubborn Community

Impact of Opinion on Disease Transmission With Waterborne Pathogen and Stubborn Community

Impact and interventions of waterborne and foodborne illnesses caused by bacterial pathogens in Nigeria: A review

Waterborne and foodborne illnesses caused by bacterial pathogens are major public health concerns, especially in developing countries like Nigeria—waterborne pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Klebsiella spp. Contribute to the spread of health challenges, primarily due to poor sanitation, contaminated drinking water, and inadequate hygiene. Similarly, foodborne pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp., are major causes of human illness, with animal-based foods often acting as transmission vectors. This review examines the current state of diagnosis, highlighting that most household water sources in Nigeria are vulnerable to contamination, with significant microbial loads exceeding WHO standards. It raises the need for effective interventions such as improved hygiene practices, water supply, sanitation and food safety management systems. Furthermore, this review discusses the impact of these pathogens on public health, noting that waterborne and foodborne diseases result in substantial mortality and economic burdens. Also, implementing good hygienic practices, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems, and public health education are essential strategies for reducing the incidence of these diseases. This review concludes by calling for a collaborative effort among governments, policymakers, stakeholders, and researchers to develop and implement multifaceted interventions to combat these pervasive health threats.

Sustainable polymeric adsorbents for adsorption-based water remediation and pathogen deactivation: a review.

Water is a fundamental resource, yet various contaminants increasingly threaten its quality, necessitating effective remediation strategies. Sustainable polymeric adsorbents have emerged as promising materials in adsorption-based water remediation technologies, particularly for the removal of contaminants and deactivation of water-borne pathogens. Pathogenetic water contamination, which involves the presence of harmful bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms, poses a significant threat to public health. This review aims to analyze the unique properties of various polymeric materials, including porous aromatic frameworks, biopolymers, and molecularly imprinted polymers, and their effectiveness in water remediation applications. Key findings reveal that these adsorbents demonstrate high surface areas, tunable surface chemistries, and mechanical stability, which enhance their performance in removing contaminants such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, and emerging contaminants from water sources. Furthermore, the review identifies gaps in current research and suggests future directions, including developing multifunctional polymeric materials and integrating adsorption techniques with advanced remediation technologies. This comprehensive analysis aims to contribute to advancing next-generation water purification technologies, ensuring access to clean and safe water for future generations.

Influence of environmental pollution and bacterial hyper-infectivity on dynamics of a waterborne pathogen model with free boundaries

<p>In this paper, we mainly study the influence of environmental pollution and bacterial hyper-infectivity on the spreading of diseases by considering a waterborne pathogen model with free boundaries. At first, the global existence and uniqueness of the solution to this problem is proved. Then, we analyze its longtime behavior, which is determined by a spreading-vanishing dichotomy. Furthermore, we obtain the criteria for spreading and vanishing. Our results indicate that environmental pollution and bacterial hyper-infectivity can increase the chance of epidemic spreading.</p>

Waterborne Virus Transport and Risk Assessment in Lake Geneva Under Climate Change

AbstractClimate changes influence lake hydrodynamics and radiation levels and thus may affect the fate and transport of waterborne pathogens in lakes. This study examines the impact of climate change on the fate, transport, and associated risks of four waterborne viruses in Lake Geneva. We used a coupled water quality‐microbial risk assessment model to estimate virus concentrations and associated risks to recreational water users for each month in 2019 and 2060. Long‐term hydrodynamic simulations suggested that although the annual hydrodynamic transport pattern of Lake Geneva will remain relatively stable, a 1.9°C increase of lake surface water temperature can be expected, while a slight decrease in lake current velocity may occur. The subsequent effect on the fate and transport of the four enteric viruses was found to vary by time of year. During warmer periods, the increase of virus inactivation due to higher water temperature and stronger solar radiation at the earth's surface will compensate for the additional virus discharge brought about by population growth over the time period considered, whereas during winter the virus concentration near the lake shore and the associated infection probabilities risks are likely to increase due to population growth. Additionally, the current estimation of virus inactivation rate shows significant variability, which has a more substantial effect on enteric virus concentrations in the lake compared with changing climate parameters. Overall, the study suggests that future risks posed by enteric viruses with recreational water users near popular beaches around Lake Geneva will likely remain similar to current risks and accurate estimation of the environmental inactivation of viruses is crucial for predicting the fate of enteric viruses in the aquatic system.

Development of a Simple and Effective Water Disinfection System Using an Electrochemical Mixed Oxidants-Generating System to Remove Waterborne Pathogens in Developing Countries

Despite tremendous efforts from various international agencies such as World Health Organization (WHO), waterborne diseases are a still major cause of morbidity and mortality in the world – with more than 1 billion incidences and more than 2 million deaths per year. As an effort to mitigate this global burden, we developed a water disinfection system using electrochemical mixed oxidants-generating system. This system is simple, inexpensive, and easy to use. In this study, we determined the effectiveness of the new water disinfection system against waterborne pathogens using <i>Escherichia coli</i> CN13, bacteriophage MS2 and <i>Bacillus subtilis</i> spores as bacterial, viral, and protozoa indicator organisms, respectively. The results of this study showed that the new water disinfection system is very effective against <i>E. coli</i> CN13 (~3 log<sub>10</sub> inactivation within 3 minutes with 0.3 mg/L of free chlorine) and coliphage MS2 (> 4 log<sub>10</sub> inactivation within 3 minutes with 0.5 mg/L of free chlorine) Although the inactivation of <i>B. subtilis</i> spores by the new disinfection system was somewhat slow (~0.5 log<sub>10</sub> inactivation in 60 minutes with 10 mg/L of free chlorine), the result is similar to previous studies with free chlorine. Overall, the results of this study indicate that the new water disinfection system using an electrochemical mixed oxidants-generating system is easy to use, convenient to carry, and also very effective against most waterborne pathogens, so it could be a sustainable solution for providing safe drinking water to the people in developing countries.

Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Potential of PEGylated Chitosan-Based Nano-Antibiotics Against Multidrug-Resistant E Coli Strains

Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Potential of PEGylated Chitosan-Based Nano-Antibiotics Against Multidrug-Resistant E Coli Strains

Application of Two-dimensional P-type ZnO Powder Illuminated By Visible Light for the Inhibition of Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria in Water

Bacteria affect food quality in developing countries by spreading through contaminated soils and water. Antibiotics are used indiscriminately to eliminate Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with varying degrees of success. The use of nanomaterials with bactericidal properties can minimize the overuse of antibiotics. In this study, a two-dimensional p-type ZnO powder was successfully synthesized and its bactericidal properties were demonstrated. The XRD and Raman spectroscopy results indicated the presence of wurtzite-phase ZnO with Oi as the predominant native defect, resulting in p-type conductivity. SEM analysis confirmed the two-dimensional morphology, and optoelectronic characterization revealed a bandgap of 3.17 eV. Despite this high bandgap value, a plasmonic effect was generated on the surface of two-dimensional ZnO, which enhanced its bactericidal properties when the powders were in contact with bacteria. From an initial colony level of 5.5 × 105 CFU/mL, a significant decrease in the number of Gram-positive bacteria to 1.15 × 105 CFU/mL was observed, whereas the number of Gram-negative bacteria slightly increased to 1.45 × 106 CFU/mL. The observed inhibition rates were higher than those achieved with the broad-spectrum antibiotic, as validated in this study. The use of two-dimensional ZnO may provide a sustainable solution for the eradication of waterborne pathogens using visible light alone.

Tailoring the topology of ZIF-67 metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) adsorbents to capture humic acids

Chlorination is a versatile technique to combat water-borne pathogens. Over the last years, there has been continued research interest to abate the formation of chlorinated disinfection by-products (DBPs). To prevent hazardous DBPs in drinking water, it is decided to diminish organic precursors, among which humic acids (HA) resulting from the decomposition and transformation of biomass. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) such as zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) have recently received tremendous attention in water purification. Herein, customized ZIF-67 MOFs possessing various physicochemical properties were prepared by changing the cobalt source. The HA removal by ZIF-67-Cl, ZIF-67-OAc, ZIF-67-NO3, and ZIF-67-SO4 were 85.6%, 68.9%, 86.1%, and 87.4%, respectively, evidently affected by the specific surface area. HA uptake by ZIF-67-SO4 indicated a removal efficiency beyond 90% in 4 <pH< 8, while a drop was observed when pH reached ∼10. A parametric study revealed that the adsorption efficiency was a function of dosage; moreover, the removal percentage remained > 90% after 60 min mixing the solution with 0.3 g L−1 ZIF-67-SO4. Notably, an acceptable removal performance (∼72.3%) was obtained even at HA concentrations up to 100 mg L−1. The equilibrium data fitted well with the isotherm models in the order of Langmuir> Hill > BET> Khan > Redlich-Peterson> Jovanovic> Freundlich > and Temkin. The maximum adsorption capacity qm for HA uptake by ZIF-67-SO4 was 175.89 mg g−1, well above the majority of adsorbents. The pseudo-first-order model described the rate of HA adsorption by time. In conclusion, ZIF-67-SO4 presented promising adsorptive properties against HA. Further studies would be needed to minimize cobalt leaching from the ZIF-67-SO4 structure and improve its reusability safely, to ensure its effectiveness and the economy of adsorption system.

Assessment of PCR Inhibitor Removal Methods to Monitor Viruses in Environmental Water Samples: DAX-8 Outperforms Competitors

Complex water matrices or viral elution buffers can interfere with the qPCR leading to an underestimation of the potential public health hazards of waterborne viral pathogens. Here, we assessed different approaches to mitigate inhibitory impact of complex water samples during RT-qPCR of murine norovirus (MNV), as an inhibition control. The dilution of extracted samples, the use of qPCR additives, a commercial PCR inhibitor removal kit, and polymeric adsorbents such as Supelite DAX-8 and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) were all investigated in this context. Data indicated that the maximum amplification of MNV by RT-qPCR could be obtained by pre-dilution of samples. However, the dilution factor may depend on inhibitors concentration, primer length, probe sequence, and binding capacity. Interestingly, PCR inhibitor removal kits do not seem to be adequate for removing all PCR inhibitors. In comparison to other approaches studied here, the application of 5% DAX-8 led to an increase in MNV qPCR concentrations. DAX-8 can permanently eliminate humic acids from the extracted nucleic acids from the environmental water samples, and it has the potential to considerably improve the accuracy of the obtained non-detects and measured concentrations by qPCR. Further research is required to understand the performance of polymeric adsorbents with enveloped viruses.

(Invited) Sustainable Paper Substrates for Biosensor Development

Paper substrates are becoming a sustainable material for various applications related to the rapid monitoring of different analytes. Capillary forces within the paper's pores can be used to manipulate the transport of different chemicals and target analytes. We have used paper strips to detect E. coli in contaminated water. An enzymatic reaction is conducted on the paper substrate, and it provides a colour change in the presence of water-borne pathogens. Like pathogens, another growing concern is the amount of pesticides in water. We have developed a novel device, “Dip-and-Fold”, which detects pesticides, such as carbamates and organophosphates, via Ellman’s acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition method. This technology is user-friendly and does not need any extra steps for adding reagents. Towards the fight against COVID-19, a sustainable technology based on a paper strip with conjugated nanoparticles and aptamers is discussed. Finally, such lateral flow assays can be used for detection of tuberculosis in limited resource communities.

Identification and Characterization of Water Borne Pathogen

Aims: To carry out isolation and characterization of bacteria from water samples.&#x0D; Study Design: Collection of water samples from different water sources, isolation of bacteria and establishment of pure culture, identification of bacteria&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Sample collected from Hingotiya and Palai village of Tonk district, Rajasthan July-August, 2018.&#x0D; Methodology: For initial screening of bacterial population, standard methods namely serial dilution and streaking methods were used, for identification, colony morphology and molecular characterization (16s rRNA gene) was done.&#x0D; Results: The bacteriological analysis revealed that Enterobacter cloacae was present in the collected tap-water.&#x0D; Conclusion: Presence of E. cloacae in tap water necessitates recommendation of frequent sanitation, treatment, management of water sources, and routine regular bacteriological assessment of all water sources for consumption as a drinking water.

The effects of heavy rain on the fate of urban and agricultural pollutants in the riverside area around weirs using multi-isotope, microbial data and numerical simulation

The increase in extreme heavy rain due to climate change is a critical factor in the fate of urban and agricultural pollutants in aquatic system. Nutrients, including NO3− and PO43−, are transported with surface and seepage waters into rivers, lakes and aquifers and can eventually lead to algal blooms. δ15N-NO3−, δ18O-NO3−, and δ11B combined with hydrogeochemical and microbial data for groundwater and surface water samples were interpreted to evaluate the fate of nutrients in a riverside area around weirs in Daegu, South Korea. Most of the ions showed similar concentrations in the groundwater samples before and after heavy rain while concentrations of major ions in surface water samples were diluted after heavy rain. However, Si, PO43−, Zn, Ce, La, Pb, Cu and a number of waterborne pathogens increased in surface water after heavy rain. The interpretation of δ11B, δ15N-NO3−, and δ18O-NO3− values using a Bayesian mixing model revealed that sewage and synthetic fertilizers were the main sources of contaminants in the groundwater and surface water samples. δ18O and SiO2 interpreted using the Bayesian mixing model indicated that the groundwater component in the surface water increased from 4.4 % to 17.9 % during the wet season. This is consistent with numerical simulation results indicating that the direct surface runoff and the groundwater baseflow contributions to the river system had also increased 6.4 times during the wet season. The increase in proteobacteria and decrease of actinobacteria in the surface water samples after heavy rain were also consistent with an increase of surface runoff and an increased groundwater component in the surface water. This study suggests that source apportionment based on chemical and multi-isotope data combined with numerical modeling approaches can be useful for identifying main hydrological and geochemical processes in riverside areas around weirs and can inform suggestions of effective methods for water quality management.

Molecular detection of waterborne pathogens in infants' drinking water and their relationship with water quality determinants in eastern Ethiopia: loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)-based study.

Cryptosporidium, Shigella, toxin-producing Escherichia coli, and rotavirus were reported to be the most responsible for severe and fatal diarrhea among infants. This study aimed to investigate the presence of these pathogens in infants' drinking water samples and analyzing using water quality determinants in eastern Ethiopia. A molecular (LAMP)-based cross-sectional study design was employed. A total of 410 and 37 water samples were tested from infant point-of-use at household and corresponding water source, respectively, from June 2020 to May, 2021. Cryptosporidium, Shigella, toxin-producing E. coli, and rotavirus were detected in 28.5, 30.0, 26.3, and 32.2%, of water samples tested from infant point-of-use, respectively. About 13.2% of the water samples were positive for all (four) pathogens together. Cryptosporidium, Shigella, toxin-producing E. coli, and rotavirus were detected in 27.0, 32.4, 29.7, and 37.8%, of water samples tested from water sources, respectively. Positive significant correlation was observed between infant point-of-consumption and water sources from which it is drawn toward the presence of each targeted pathogen. Unimproved water source showed a strong significant association with the presence of Cryptosporidium, Shigella and toxin-producing E. coli. Therefore, efforts should be made in development of improved water sources, source protection safety and health education to caretakers of infants.