Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Research Articles

Seasonal variation of enteric bacteria population in surface water sources among rural communities of Ijebu North, Ogun State, Nigeria

The study assessed the effect of seasonal variation on enteric bacteria population in water sources of six different communities between April 2017 and March 2018 using conventional microbiological methods. Bacteria belonging to the enteric family were primarily investigated in this study. The bacteriological analyses included total viable bacterial counts and phenotypic characterization. The bacteriological analyses showed that total heterotrophic counts ranged from 1.2 × 104 cfu/ml to 3.0 × 104 cfu/ml and from 1.0 × 104 cfu/ml to 2.0 × 104 cfu/ml during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. One hundred and twenty-two potentially pathogenic species of bacteria representing 10 genera were identified. These included Acinetobacter sp., Enterobacter sp., Escherichia coli, Shigella sp., Salmonella sp., and Proteus sp. Others are Serratia sp., Pseudomonas sp., Yersinia sp., and Klebsiella sp. Results showed that bacteria isolated (10) were higher during the rainy season while Klebsiella sp (24) and Enterobacter sp (30) were the predominant species. It was apparent that water sources investigated in this study were unsafe for domestic use due to the presence of these pathogenic bacteria. So, there is a need for the provision of safe water in these communities to prevent outbreaks of waterborne disease.
 Key words: microbial, potable water, rural dwellers, seasonal variation

Dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in swimming pools and implication for human skin

Swimming pools are crowd-gathering places that are associated with numerous outbreaks of water-borne diseases. Herein, we investigated the distribution of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and bacterial communities in swimming pools and determined the influencing factors and potential human exposure. Sixteen swimming pools with different bather loads (0.01–0.16 person/m2·h) were investigated. Water samples were collected, before opening and after closing of the facilities, from six swimming pools, and skin samples were collected from volunteers. Comprehensive approaches, high-throughput qPCR and 16S rRNA gene sequencing, were used. The results showed that swimming pools contained a higher relative abundance (0.62 gene copies/16S rRNA) and absolute abundance (6.57×108 gene copies/L) of ARGs on average. Bather loads contributed to the increase of core ARGs, and the absolute abundance of ARGs significantly increased by 1.47–1.94 orders of magnitude when the bather load was more than 0.1 person/m2·h. Dermal contact was estimated as the main exposure route of ARGs. Eighteen ARGs that were not detected before swimming were found on human skin and remained after showering. Furthermore, the event intake burden of ARGs via dermal contact was higher than that via ingestion when swimming. This study provides an assessment of ARGs and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in swimming pools and helps to define the health risks to swimmers.

An assessment of groundwater quality in Zimbabwe's urban areas: case of Mkoba 19 suburb, Gweru.

Groundwater quality assessment in urban areas is one of significant endeavours to ensure safety of urban residents who use groundwater especially in areas with erratic tap water supply. The study assessed groundwater quality and vulnerability of residents to water contamination-related diseases in Mkoba 19 suburb in Gweru, Zimbabwe. The research employed a mixed methods research design using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Laboratory tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions and observations were used to solicit data. Statistical package for social scientist (SPSS) version 20.0 and Microsoft excel package were adopted for data analysis in this study. The study revealed that Mkoba 19 suburb has more wells than boreholes. Boreholes were evenly distributed over the residential area than wells which were clustered to the southern and northern edges of the suburb. All boreholes in Mkoba 19 were drilled to the depth of 40m, but wells were dug to varying depths. The study confirmed that borehole water in Mkoba 19 was acidic and thus unsafe for human consumption. Water from wells in Mkoba 19 was confirmed positive of Escherichia coli which shows contamination from sewage and waste dump leachates. The findings of this research indicated that both borehole and well water sources in Mkoba suburb had permissible levels of dissolved oxygen and turbidity. Chi-square tests conducted confirmed that there was an association between water source depth and level of E. coli contamination in water whereas there is no association between water source depth and water pH level. The research confirmed that residents of Mkoba 19 were highly vulnerable to water borne illnesses as they were using contaminated water for domestic purposes without treating it. Basing on similar studies conducted in the past 3years, it was shown that groundwater quality in Mkoba 19 mimics that of other countries of the developing world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, which shows that vulnerability to ground water contamination in urban areas is an issue that requires critical attention and almost similar solution. The research recommends that Gweru City Council should upgrade its water supply system especially the pumping system to improve water supply in Mkoba suburb. To minimize water-borne disease outbreaks in the future, urban residents who rely on secondary or tertiary sources of water for domestic purposes should treat water using chlorine, water guards and other water cleansing measures on a regular basis.

The Livelihoods Impacts of Irrigation in Western Africa: The Ghana Experience

Although agriculture remains the mainstay of the African economy, it is currently going through stress because of a multitude of factors including climate change. Thus, many countries in their efforts to transform their agricultural sectors are employing climate-smart initiatives including the provision of water harvesting technologies for irrigated crop production during the dry season. This paper examines the role of irrigation in the drive towards a transformation of smallholder agriculture in Africa. Focus group discussions, key informant interviews and individual questionnaires were employed for the data collection. The data were analyzed using the regression adjustment (RA) technique. The results indicate that irrigation has significant and positive impacts on farm incomes, employment, consumption, food security and non-farm businesses, all of which are necessary conditions for a successful transformation of smallholder agriculture in Africa. The impacts of irrigation on health and environmental sustainability are mixed—the positive being the ability of irrigators to pay for improved healthcare for their families and the negatives include the outbreak of waterborne diseases associated with irrigation water. Construction of irrigation facilities causes destruction to the environment but improves provisioning ecosystem services. It is generally concluded that access to irrigation is associated with higher farm incomes, employment, consumption, food security and engagement in non-farm business activities. The key policy implication of these findings is that African governments must formulate strategic policies that will accelerate investments in the provision of irrigation facilities to better promote the agenda to transform smallholder agriculture in the continent.

Trends in recent waterborne and foodborne disease outbreaks in South Korea, 2015-2019.

ObjectivesThis study analyzed trends in foodborne and waterborne diseases in South Korea between 2015 and 2019.MethodsThe data consisted of information on outbreaks of waterborne and foodborne infectious diseases reported through the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (KCDC) system. We analyzed the trends and epidemiological aspects of outbreaks by month, place of occurrence, and causative pathogens in this observational study.ResultsThe number of outbreaks has steadily increased over the last 5 years, but the number of cases per outbreak has followed a decreasing trend. Incidence at daycare centers and preschools has been steadily increasing over consecutive years.ConclusionThe steady number of patients and decreasing number of cases per outbreak, even as the number of outbreaks has been increasing, suggest that the KCDC’s professional management system is operating effectively. It is necessary to continue improving the objectivity and efficiency of the management system and to carefully examine the increasing number of outbreaks in smaller-scale group catering facilities, such as daycare centers and preschools. Outbreaks can be prevented by closely examining those caused by unidentified pathogens and group outbreaks caused by other diseases, identifying problems, and supplementing the management system.

CONTAMINATION ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AROUND WASTE DUMPSITES IN ABAKALIKI, NIGERIA; A MINI REVIEW

Monitoring of water quality is needed from time to time to avoid outbreak of severe water borne disease. This article review previous literature on impact of waste dumpsites on water quality around Abakaliki and its environs, with emphasis on active and non-active dumpsite. Findings from reviewed article revealed that waste dumpsite sites close to water bodies or ways has altered water quality in Abakaliki urban, while groundwater is contaminated through leaching process. This groundwater contamination occurs mostly when waste dumpsite is sited close to borehole or hand-dug well. Based on reviewed literature it is advised that waste dumpsite should be sited distance away from residential buildings as the state government should also endeavor to continually monitor water quality for domestic use to avoid outbreak of various kind of water related disease.

Assessment of Physicochemical and Bacteriological Quality of Well Water Samples in Ido Community, Nigeria

This study was carried out to investigate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of well water samples in Ido community. Thirty water samples were collected from five different wells ( six samples from each well) and subjected to standard microbiological and physicochemical analysis. All physicochemical properties showed difference (p<0.05) in all the wells analyzed except temperature and turbidity. Temperature ranged between 25.3±3.50C and 26±2.350C; pH, 6.3±0.7 and 6.9±0.3; electrical conductivity, 127.6±1.9 and 157.8±7.7μs/cm; total suspended solids, 25.2±8.9 and 53.2±1.8mg/l; turbidity, 0.15±0.7 and 1.20±1.4NTU; dissolved oxygen, 4.40±2.8 and 5.35±2.1 mg/l; Biological Oxygen Demand, 9.40±2.8 and15.4±2.8mg/l; Chemical Oxygen Demand, 177.2±1.6 and 260.3±1.6mg/l; chloride, 59.8±8.5 and 101.2±2.6mg/l and total hardness, 246.6±1.9 and 395.6±2.7mg/l. All values fell within WHO standards except Chemical Oxygen Demand (WHO Standard 40mg/l) and total hardness (WHO Standard 100mg/l). Results of microbial population did not show any difference (p>0.05) across the wells. However, Total Heterotrophic Bacteria ranged from 2.15±0.91×104 to 5.3±0.86×104cfu/ml; total coliform, 3.00±0.77×104 to 6.18±0.73×104 cfu/ml; Total feacal coliform, 2.61±0.71×104 to 4.39±0.76×104 cfu/ml; Total vibrio count, 2.68±0.81× 103 to 4.4±0.86×103 cfu/ml; Total salmonella shigella count. 2.02±0.84×103 to 4.8±0.95×103 cfu/ml. Total coliform bacteria ranged from 220 to > 1600 coliform MPN index /100ml-1, while thermo tolerant coliform bacteria ranged from 220 to 1600 coliform MPN index /100ml-1. A total of forty bacterial isolates belonging to ten genera were identified. They include species of Bacillus 22 (26.4%), Staphylococcus 14(16.8%), Vibrio 13(15.7%), Serratia 6(7.3%), Enterobacter 6(7.3%), Chromobacterium 4(4.8%), Salmonella 4 (4.9%), Shigella 4(4.8%) and E. coli 4(4.8%). This result highlights the fact that well water in Ido community are not safe microbiologically for drinking without additional treatment such as boiling or disinfection and this could lead to outbreak of water borne diseases. Good and proper environmental and personal hygiene is advocate especially by the users of those wells to prevent their contamination with bacterial pathogens.

Peri-urban water, sanitation and hygiene in Lusaka, Zambia: photovoice empowering local assessment via ecological theory.

Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) factors are responsible for 11.4% of deaths in Zambia, making WASH a key public health concern. Despite annual waterborne disease outbreaks in the nation's peri-urban (slum) settlements being linked to poor WASH, few studies have proactively analysed and conceptualised peri-urban WASH and its maintaining factors. Our study aimed to (a) establish residents' definition of peri-urban WASH and their WASH priorities; and (b) use ecological theory to analyse the peri-urban WASH ecosystem, highlighting maintaining factors. Our study incorporated 16 young people (aged 17-24) residing in peri-urban Lusaka, Zambia in a photovoice exercise. Participants took photographs answering the framing question: 'What is WASH in your community?'. Then, through contextualisation and basic codifying, participants told the stories of their photographs and made posters to summarise problems and WASH priorities. Participant contextualisation and codifying further underwent theoretical thematic analysis to pinpoint causal factors alongside key players, dissecting the peri-urban WASH ecosystem via the five-tier ecological theory ranging from intrapersonal to public policy levels. Via ecological theory, peri-urban WASH was defined as: (a) a poor practice (intrapersonal, interpersonal); (b) a health hazard (community norm); (c) substandard and unregulated (public policy, organisational); and (d) offering hope for change (intrapersonal, interpersonal). Linked to these themes, participant findings revealed a community level gap, with public policy level standards, regulations and implementation having minimal impact on overall peri-urban WASH and public health due to shallow community engagement and poor acknowledgement of the WASH realities of high-density locations. Rather than a top-down approach, participants recommended increased government-resident collaboration, offering residents more ownership and empowerment for intervention, implementation and defending of preferred peri-urban WASH standards.

Ferric sulphate flocculation as a concentration method for Giardia and Cryptosporidium in filter backwash water

Abstract Filter backwash water (FBW) is a prominent residue from water treatment plants (WTPs) that is often disposed into water bodies or recycled within the WTP without due disinfection. FBW usually contains particles within a size range that includes pathogenic protozoa, as the infective forms of Giardia and Cryptosporidium, parasites responsible for waterborne diseases outbreaks. Quantifying (oo)cysts is essential for addressing this matter, as it might assist research on giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis epidemiology, as well as shed light onto disinfection technologies for FBW. However, (oo)cyst recovery from FBW and other complex matrices still lacks a standard protocol and entails specialized professionals and expensive material. Seeking to provide insight in a reduced-cost recovery method, this study analysed the recovery efficiency (RE) obtained by acid flocculation with ferric sulphate, a common coagulant, on bench-scale simulated FBW. Steps included concentration by flocculation, centrifugation, and quantification by immunofluorescence. Although recovery was sufficient for Cryptosporidium parvum (40.59%), Method 1623.1 recommendations were not reached for Giardia muris (1.76%). Coefficients of variation obtained for both organisms were not satisfactory, highlighting the variability to which environmental matrices are subjected and why defining a methodology for (oo)cyst recovery in WTP residues is important.

Detection of Infectious Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts from Lamb’s Lettuce: CC–qPCR’s Intake

Cryptosporidium spp. is responsible for several food and waterborne disease outbreaks worldwide. Healthier lifestyles attract consumers to eat, notably, fresh food like fruits and vegetables. The consumption of raw or under-cooked food increases the risk of foodborne transmission of Cryptosporidiosis. The assessment of the consumer’s exposure to Cryptosporidium danger is crucial for public health. Still, the standardized method to detect this parasite in fresh leafy greens and berry fruits has only been available since 2016 and suffers from weaknesses. Consequently, in this study, we propose a method with minimum processing steps that combines cell culture and the quantitative PCR (CC–qPCR) for detecting infectious C. parvum oocysts recovered from lamb’s lettuce. This CC–qPCR is a rapid and easy method that can detect up to one oocyst, whereas it is undetectable by classic qPCR.

Seasonal Microbial Quality of Drinking Water in Shendi Town, River Nile State, Sudan

The most common and widespread health risk associated with drinking water is microbial contamination which has the potential to cause large outbreaks of waterborne diseases. The objective of this study was to assess the bacteriological quality of drinking water in Shendi Town. A descriptive analytic study was used to examine the bacteriological quality of drinking water from sources, the distribution system, and household containers, Water samples were collected per season from all sources that used directly for drinking purpose in the community at study area according to the WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality. Water samples were examined for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli by using (lauryl treptose media, brilliant green bile broth and peptone water (BGB), and Earthen methylene blue (EMB)) methods respectively. The study revealed that the bacteriological quality of drinking water varied from one season to another, where 31.3% of tested samples indicated feacal pollution in the summer season, and 41.3% of samples pointed to E. coli bacteria presence in autumn, While 36.3% of samples were appeared E. coli positive in the winter season. Based on the findings of this study we recommend that: Civil Water Corporation should be improvement the quality of currently drinking water by subjecting it to treatment processes, and must be established a surface drinking water treatment plant as soon as possible.

Distribution of Antibiotic-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Pathogens in Potable Spring Water of Eastern Indian Himalayas: Emphasis on Virulence Gene and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Escherichia coli.

Every year millions of people die due to fatal waterborne diseases around the world especially in developing countries like India. Sikkim, a northeastern state of India, greatly depends on natural water sources. About 80% of the population of Sikkim depends on natural spring water for domestic as well as agricultural use. Recent waterborne disease outbreaks in the state raises a concerning question on water quality. In this study, we analyzed water quality especially for the detection of Enterobacteriaceae members from four districts of the state. Isolation with selective culture media techniques and taxonomic characterization of Enterobacteriaceae bacteria with 16S rRNA gene showed the prevalence of Escherichia coli (37.50%), Escherichia fergusonii (29.41%), Klebsiella oxytoca (36.93%), Citrobacter freundii (37.92%), Citrobacter amalonaticus (43.82%), Enterobacter sp. (43.82%), Morganella morganii (43.82%), Hafnia alvei (32.42%), Hafnia paralvei (38.74%), and Shigella flexneri (30.47%) in the spring water of Sikkim. Antibiotic susceptibility test (AST) showed resistance of the isolates to common antibiotics like ampicillin, amoxicillin as well as to third generation antibiotics like ceftazidime and carbapenem. None of the isolates showed resistance to chloramphenicol. E. coli isolated from spring water of Sikkim showed presence of different virulence genes such as stx1 (81.81%), elt (86.66%), and eae (66.66%) along with resistance gene for ampicillin (CITM) (80%), quinolones (qnrB) (44.44%), tetracycline (tetO) (66.66%), and streptomycin (aadA1) (66.66%). The data indicates a high incidence rate of multiple antibiotic resistant enteric bacteria in the spring water of Sikkim. Additionally, the presence of enteric bacteria in the water samples indicates widespread fecal contamination of the spring water.

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis emissions from humans and animals in the Three Gorges Reservoir in Chongqing, China.

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are two waterborne protozoan parasites that can cause diarrhea. Human and animal feces in surface water are a major source of these pathogens. This paper presents a GloWPa-TGR-Crypto model that estimates Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis emissions from human and animal feces in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR), and uses scenario analysis to predict the effects of sanitation, urbanization, and population growth on oocyst and cyst emissions for 2050. Our model estimated annual emissions of 1.6 × 1015 oocysts and 2.1 × 1015 cysts from human and animal feces, respectively. Humans were the largest contributors of oocysts and cysts, followed by pigs and poultry. Cities were hot-spots for human emissions, while districts with high livestock populations accounted for the highest animal emissions. Our model was the most sensitive to oocyst excretion rates. The results indicated that 74% and 87% of total emissions came from urban areas and humans, respectively, and 86% of total human emissions were produced by the urban population. The scenario analysis showed a potential decrease in oocyst and cyst emissions with improvements in urbanization, sanitation, wastewater treatment, and manure management, regardless of population increase. Our model can further contribute to the understanding of environmental pathways, the risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia pollution, and effective prevention and control strategies that can reduce the outbreak of waterborne diseases in the TGR and other similar watersheds.

Levels of human Rotaviruses and Noroviruses GII in urban rivers running through the city mirror their infection prevalence in populations

Enteric viruses exposed to water pose a huge threat to global public health and can lead to waterborne disease outbreaks. A sudden increase in enteric viruses in some water matrices also underpins the prevalence of corresponding waterborne diseases in communities over the same time period. However, few efforts have been focused on water matrices whose viral pollution may best reflect the clinical prevalence in communities. Here, a one-year surveillance of human enteric viruses including Enteroviruses (EnVs), Rotaviruses (HRVs), Astroviruses (AstVs), Noroviruses GII (HuNoVsGII) and Mastadenoviruses (HAdVs) in four representative water matrices: an urban river (UR) running through city, effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plant (EW), raw water for Urban Water Treatment Plant (RW), and tap water (TW) were performed by qPCR. The relationship between the virus detection frequency at each site and their prevalence in clinical PCR assay was further analyzed. We found that the detection frequencies of HRVs, HuNoVsGII, and AstVs in stools peaked in winter, while EnVs peaked in autumn. No EnVs occurred in EW, RW, or TW, but HuNoVsGII and AstVs occurred intensively in winter. For UR, all types of enteric viruses could be detected and the levels of acute gastroenteritis viruses (HRVs, HuNoVsGII, AstVs, and HAdVs) were highest in autumn or winter, whereas EnVs peaked in summer. In terms of correlation analyses, only HRVs and HuNoVsGII levels in UR showed a strong positive correlation with their prevalence in clinical stool samples. This study indicated that HRVs and HuNoVsGII levels in URs may mirror the local virus prevalence, thereby implying the possibility of revealing their local epidemiology by monitoring them in the URs.

Using Composite Nanofibers to Remove Microorganisms from Aqueous Solutions

The provision of safe drinking water has been one of humanity’s most successful public health interventions and is a defining aspect of a devel+oped country. However, ignorance of the potential risks, inappropriate training of staff and managers working on drinking water systems still results in unnecessary waterborne disease outbreaks in affluent communities. Microorganisms present in drinking water sources such as bacteria have been targeted with the aim of limiting their growth as well as eliminating them. A chemical contains a mixture of chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol, nanomagnetic iron oxide, as well as nanocarbon were used. This chemical obtained in the form of nanofibers by the electric spinning process, where the properties of this substance and its shape studied using the scanning electronic microscope (SEM) as well as the transmission electronic microscope (TEM), the type and shape of bacteria. This paper aims to show the bacteria effects on the public health, clearfy their shape and type, as well as stopping and eliminating the bacterial growth

Assessment of bacteriological quality and physico-chemical parameters of domestic water sources in Samaru community, Zaria, Northwest Nigeria

The quality of water supply is assessed by its physico-chemical and bacteriological properties. This study was carried-out with the aim of determining the contamination level of domestic water sources of Samaru community, Zaria, Northcentral Nigeria in order to observed the trend of change in quality of these water sources, if any. This was with a view to safeguard the public health of the riparian users against a possible outbreak of water borne diseases. Water samples were collected and analyzed for bacteriological and physicochemical quality using standard procedures. The results showed that the mean values recorded for physico-chemical parameters among the domestic water sources were within stipulated limits of WHO for safe drinking water except for chloride mean value of 314 ± 142.4 mg/L recorded in borehole water. The total heterotrophic bacterial counts recorded in tap, borehole, well, reservoir and river water samples (3.67 × 106 ± 1.25 × 106, 5.67 × 106 ± 8.49 × 105, 2.60 × 107 ± 6.09 × 106, 5.07 × 106 ± 1.59 × 106 and 6.02 × 107 ± 3.69 × 106) exceeded the WHO permissible limits for drinking water (<500 cfu/ml). High abundance of isolated bacteria genus such as Enterobacter, proteus, Escherichia, Salmonella and Shigella were recorded in well, river and reservoir water systems. There was a strong positive correlation between the total bacteria count and physico-chemical parameters, which suggested that the parameters influenced bacterial growth. The occurrence of these bacterial geniuses in the water sources are considered capable to cause potential health consequences for the consumers. Therefore, proper purification and treatment of domestic water sources of the Samaru community should be ensured before being used by the riparian users.

Does land use affect pathogen presence in New Zealand drinking water supplies?

Four microbes (Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp.) were monitored in 16 waterways that supply public drinking water for 13 New Zealand towns and cities. Over 500 samples were collected from the abstraction point at each study site every three months between 2009 and 2019. The waterways represent a range from small to large, free flowing to reservoir impoundments, draining catchments of entirely native vegetation to those dominated by pastoral agriculture. We used machine learning algorithms to explore the relative contribution of land use, catchment geology, vegetation, topography, and water quality characteristics of the catchment to determining the abundance and/or presence of each microbe. Sites on rivers draining predominantly agricultural catchments, the Waikato River, Oroua River and Waiorohi Stream had all four microbes present, often in high numbers, throughout the sampling interval. Other sites, such as the Hutt River and Big Huia Creek in Wellington which drain catchments of native vegetation, never had pathogenic microbes detected, or unsafe levels of E. coli. Boosted Regression Tree models could predict abundances and presence/absence of all four microbes with good precision using a wide range of potential environmental predictors covering land use, geology, vegetation, topography, and nutrient concentrations. Models were more accurate for protozoa than bacteria but did not differ markedly in their ability to predict abundance or presence/absence. Environmental drivers of microbe abundance or presence/absence also differed depending on whether the microbe was protozoan or bacterial. Protozoa were more prevalent in waterways with lower water quality, higher numbers of ruminants in the catchment, and in September and December. Bacteria were more abundant with higher rainfall, saturated soils, and catchments with greater than 35% of the land in agriculture. Although modern water treatment protocols will usually remove many pathogens from drinking water, several recent outbreaks of waterborne disease due to treatment failures, have highlighted the need to manage water supplies on multiple fronts. This research has identified potential catchment level variables, and thresholds, that could be better managed to reduce the potential for pathogens to enter drinking water supplies.

Bacteriological assessment of some borehole water samples in Mile 50, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Water as excellent natural resource is meant to be of high quality to reduce the outbreak of water-borne diseases. Bacteriological load of some borehole water samples in Mile 50 Abakaliki were carried out to determine their potability. Fifteen borehole water samples were sampled during rainy and dry season from June to July and November to December 2018 respectively. The total bacterial count was determined by tenfold serial dilution method using peptone water. Eight bacterial species namely Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexineri, Proteus vulgaris and Klebsiella pneumoniaewere isolated using standard analytical procedures. The bacterium that had the highest frequency of occurrence during both rainy and dry season’s was K. pneumoniae with percentage frequency of 21.81% and 20.79% respectively, and P. vulgaris had the least value of 6.96% during rainy season. E. coli and S. aureus have the least value of 5.94% during dry season. Amoxicillin (30ug) was mostly resisted by the bacterial isolates why being was more susceptible to Ciprofloxacin (10ug) among the antibiotics used for susceptibility test. Two way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the level of significance among the bacteriological analyses of both seasons. Therefore, there is need to create awareness about the present situation of the borehole waters and the necessity for further treatment of water by consumers, before it can be used for both drinking and domestic purposes to prevent disease outbreak in the area.

Syndromic Surveillance of Acute Gastroenteritis Using the French Health Insurance Database: Discriminatory Algorithm and Drug Prescription Practices Evaluations.

The French national public health agency (Santé publique France) has used data from the national health insurance reimbursement system (SNDS) to identify medicalised acute gastroenteritis (mAGE) for more than 10 years. This paper presents the method developed to evaluate this system: performance and characteristics of the discriminatory algorithm, portability in mainland and overseas French departments, and verification of the mAGE database updating process. Pharmacy surveys with certified mAGE from 2012 to 2015 were used to characterise mAGE and to estimate the sensitivity and predictive positive value (PPV) of the algorithm. Prescription characteristics from these pharmacy surveys and from 2014 SNDS prescriptions in six mainland and overseas departments were compared. The sensitivity (0.90) and PPV (0.82) did not vary according to the age of the population or year. Prescription characteristics were similar within all studied departments. This confirms that the algorithm can be used in all French departments, for both paediatric and adult populations, with stability and durability over time. The algorithm can identify mAGE cases at a municipal level. The validated system has been implemented in a national waterborne disease outbreaks surveillance system since 2019 with the aim of improving the prevention of infectious disease risk attributable to localised tap water systems.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water and drinking water: Animal sources and towards the use of a machine-learning approach as a tool for predicting contamination

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are important parasites due to their zoonotic potential and impact on human health, often causing waterborne outbreaks of disease. Detection of (oo)cysts in water matrices is challenging and few countries have legislated water monitoring for their presence. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and origin of these parasites in different water sources in Northern Greece and identify interactions between biotic/abiotic factors in order to develop risk-assessment models. During a 2-year period, using a longitudinal, repeated sampling approach, 12 locations in 4 rivers, irrigation canals, and a water production company, were monitored for Cryptosporidium and Giardia, using standard methods. Furthermore, 254 faecal samples from animals were collected from 15 cattle and 12 sheep farms located near the water sampling points and screened for both parasites, in order to estimate their potential contribution to water contamination. River water samples were frequently contaminated with Cryptosporidium (47.1%) and Giardia (66.2%), with higher contamination rates during winter and spring. During a 5-month period, (oo)cysts were detected in drinking-water (<1/litre). Animals on all farms were infected by both parasites, with 16.7% of calves and 17.2% of lambs excreting Cryptosporidium oocysts and 41.3% of calves and 43.1% of lambs excreting Giardia cysts. The most prevalent species identified in both water and animal samples were C. parvum and G. duodenalis assemblage AII. The presence of G. duodenalis assemblage AII in drinking water and C. parvum IIaA15G2R1 in surface water highlights the potential risk of waterborne infection. No correlation was found between (oo)cyst counts and faecal-indicator bacteria. Machine-learning models that can predict contamination intensity with Cryptosporidium (75% accuracy) and Giardia (69% accuracy), combining biological, physicochemical and meteorological factors, were developed. Although these prediction accuracies may be insufficient for public health purposes, they could be useful for augmenting and informing risk-based sampling plans.