Unavailability Of Water Research Articles

Enhancement of Land and Water Productivity through Participatory Rural Appraisal

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is a technique which gives more emphasis on indigenous knowledge enable locals to do their own appraisal, analysis and planning in the participatory mode. In this study, for the problem identification, problem-solution and preparation of village development plan SWOT analysis and PRA tools was used at Bhargawan village of Satna district, India. The rank-based quotient (RBQ) was calculated in order to prioritize the identified problems and their solution was given using problem-solution tree technique. Findings indicated low land and water productivity, unavailability of irrigation water, aira partha, Soil sickness with Fusarium, mismanagement of animal waste and crop residue as constraints faced by the farmers of village. Constraints identified were categorized as problems arising out of gaps in research/extension activities in various agriculture and allied sectors. Based on the results and necessity of the villagers, scope for research/extension and village agriculture development programme/policy implications was made. Village agriculture development plan (VADP) of Bhargawan village will help the policymaker/NGOs/State govt. in the planning and management of soil, water and agriculture resources.

Contamination issues in sachet and bottled water in Nigeria: a mini-review

Due to the unavailability of pipe-borne water in Nigeria, the idea of packaged drinking water in plastic bottles and sachets is now a common phenomenon in the country by private sector participation. The review aimed to evaluate and discuss the contamination issues on commercially available water in Nigeria. The review was conducted to synthesise the current body of knowledge in the research area to help present a proper perspective of the status quo. The result has shown that in most locations in the country, heavy metal pollution was still observable especially in sachet and bottled water. The result has shown that contamination by microbes, such as Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, was rampant. Furthermore, the microbial contamination issues were more widespread than for heavy metals. This was an indictment of the regulatory bodies that have not fully enforced stricter measures to ensure good quality of water is available to the Nigerian populace. It is recommended that integrated water management systems be set up in most urban and suburban locations to ensure the availability of pipe-borne water. Considering the significance of the current issue to the achievement of the sustainable development goals, efforts must be made to implement technological strategies for the separation and/or degradation of pollutants from commercial water during production.

Constraints and Determinants of Coffee Processing Methods in Gulmi District, Nepal

Nepalese coffee is widely recognized as organic and specialty coffee due to its peculiar aroma and flavor. Altitude, geographical location, orchard management practices, post-harvest handling are the major factors that affect the coffee quality. Coffee quality is determined 40% in the field, 40% at post-harvest primary processing, and 20% at secondary processing. In Nepal, dry and wet methods are the most common coffee processing methods. Wet processed coffee is more preferred by the consumers in comparison to dry coffee and commands higher price. Main objective of the study was to know the most common processing method adopted in Gulmi district and to know the determinants and constraints of the processing method. 100 coffee growers from four different local bodies of Gulmi district were selected by the purposive sampling method for the household survey. Descriptive statistics, logit model and index score ranking method were used for the data analysis. Gender of household head (p <0.01), education level (p<0.05) and technical trainings (p<0.05) were found to have significant effect upon the selection of processing methods. Due to several constraints all coffee growers were unable to adopt wet processing of coffee. Index score method was used to rank the constraints for adoption of wet processing methods. Lack of availability of hand pulpers was ranked as the major constraint by the coffee growers with an index score of 0.867 followed by unavailability of water, no access to transportation as other major constraints for adoption of wet processing method.
 Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 8(3): 368-373

Clean Water Programs In Oefafi Village, Kupang, Nusa Tenggara Barat

Oefafi is one of the driest places in Indonesia and community experiences water shortages. They need to walk up to 1-2 km to get a water source due to the unavailability of water. There are many aid programs in the Oefafi but it is unsuccessful. They were not used maximally by the community and the level of community involvement was low. Jaka Perkasa Citra Cemerlang Foundation (JPCC) is a non-profit organization. This foundation empowers the community through the clean water programs in Oefafi. The research objective is to find out how JPCC foundation’s communication strategy in empowering the local community through the clean water program. It also focuses on the supporting factors as well as the inhibiting factors in implementing community empowerment communication strategies. This research uses a qualitative approach with a case study method. The results of the study showed the success case of community empowerment in Oefafi. Empowerment by JPCC Foundation already showed an active participation. The communication strategy carried out successfully to trust in the community so that the community has the awareness and willingness to change. Although there are some communities who refuse to be empowered due to the character of people.

Water-Based Scalable Methods for Self-Cleaning Antibacterial ZnO-Nanostructured Surfaces.

Bacterial colonization poses significant health risks, such as infestation of surfaces in biomedical applications and clean water unavailability. If maintaining the surrounding water clean is a target, developing surfaces with strong bactericidal action, which is facilitated by bacterial access to the surface and mixing, can be a solution. On the other hand, if sustenance of a surface free of bacteria is the goal, developing surfaces with ultralow bacterial adhesion often suffices. Here we report a facile, scalable, and environmentally benign strategy that delivers customized surfaces for these challenges. For bactericidal action, nanostructures of inherently antibacterial ZnO, through simple immersion of zinc in hot water, are fabricated. The resulting nanostructured surface exhibits extreme bactericidal effectiveness (9250 cells cm–2 h–1) that eliminates bacteria in direct contact and also remotely through the action of reactive oxygen species. Remarkably, the remote bactericidal action is achieved without the need for any illumination, otherwise required in conventional approaches. As a result, ZnO nanostructures yield outstanding water disinfection of >99.98%, in the dark, by inactivating the bacteria within 3 h. Moreover, Zn2+ released to the aqueous medium from the nanostructured ZnO surface have a concentration of 0.73 ± 0.15 ppm, markedly below the legal limit for safe drinking water (5–6 ppm). The same nanostructures, when hydrophobized (through a water-based or fluorine-free spray process), exhibit strong bacterial repulsion, thus substantially reducing bacterial adhesion. Such environmentally benign and scalable methods showcase pathways toward inhibiting surface bacterial colonization.

Sustainable production using a resource–energy–water nexus for the Pakistani textile industry

Manufacturing industries have a significant impact on economic development, by producing distinctive products for domestic consumers and by generating revenue from exports. The textile industry has always been a profitable industry and the expansion of the fashion industry has increased its significance in recent decades. The Pakistani textile industry is one of the largest textile industries in the international market, as Pakistan is a rich cotton-growing country having an extensive labour market. However, climate change and population growth have affected this industry because of a decline in cotton production, power outages, and the unavailability of adequate water. Hence, the stability of this industry is associated with the sustainability of natural resources, including cotton, energy, and water. Based on the nexus concept using a system dynamics approach, this study develops a resource–energy–water (REW) comprehensive model to explore possible solutions based on the interconnections between these parameters. The results indicate that there is a two-way relationship between all the components of the nexus which can be expedited to manage the daily production targets. Uncertainty analysis reveals that the energy and water demands are more difficult to predict than the resource (cotton). The results and implications of this study can serve as a support for policy makers and regulators to modify textile policy by providing incentives to industry to incorporate renewable energy and re-useable wastewater technologies. The nexus can also be adopted by other manufacturing industries for industrial and environmental sustainability.

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF NIZAM ZACHMAN OCEANIQUE FISHING PORT ACTIVITIES ON THE COMMUNITY AND ITS SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT

The existence of the Nizam Zachman Oceanique Fishing Port (NZOFP)-Jakarta had a socio-economic impact on the people in areas around the fishing port considered as buffer zones. the negative impact was observed on the environment in the forms of waste disposal (into waters and land), decreasing water quality, the emergence of odors and unavailability of clean water. The research used a case study approach with case units in the forms of stakeholders and the community perceptions around NZOFP. The analysis of the socio-economic aspects of the existing condition at NZOFP refers to the socio-economic data in the area around NZOFP, namely Penjaringan Muara Baru District, North Jakarta. The analyzed aspects were: (1) the number of workers involved in the NZOFP area; (2) Community income (respondent) and (3) Community perception of the existence of the NZOFP. The ratio of the number of workers in NZOFP and the total workforce in the Penjaringan area of North Jakarta was 82%. This number suggests that labor absorption through the sample data has met the standard of at least 20%. The results of the income analysis showed that 50% of the respondents had income above Rp. 3,100,000 (above the Minimum Wage of Workers in DKI Jakarta). The analysis of respondents 'perceptions of the exis NZOFP were in Medium (25%); Good (54%) and Very Good (19%). The analysis of respondents' behavior in disposing of garbage showed that knowledge and habit variables were factors influencing behavior, while the educational level did not affect.

Effect of nitrogen management and seedling raising methods on the productivity of Aus rice under tidal ecosystem of Bangladesh

The low productivity of Aus rice in the tidal ecosystem of Bangladesh is mainly due to the difficulties in nitrogen (N) management under high tidal water along with unavailability of irrigation water during the onset of rice cultivation. Our present study demonstrated how the productivity of Aus rice could be improved using appropriate seedling raising methods and N management practices. The study was laid out in split plot design consisting two factors viz., seedling raising methods (wet seed bed and dry seed bed) and N management practices (six N treatments) in three replications. Results indicated that both the seedling raising methods and N management practices had significant effect on all the yield contributing characters of transplanted Aus rice under tidal condition. Specifically, the combination of seedlings raised in wet seed bed and fertilized with urea super granule (USG) at 10 days after transplanting (DAT) i.e., N3W showed the best values for plant height (110.33cm), number of effective tillers hill-1 (14.60), days required 50% flowering (53.00 DAT), days to maturity (84.33 DAT), panicle length (23.37 cm), number of filled grain panicle-1 (88.13), 1000-grain weight (43.17 g), grain yield (4.62 tha-1), straw yield (6.07 tha-1), biological yield (10.67 tha-1), and harvest index (43.17%). However, in considering the productivity/ grain yield, besides N3W, the whole urea application at land preparation along with wet seed bed (N1W) and USG application along with dry seed bed (N3D) also produced statistically similar results (p<0.01) and thus all these three combinations may be practiced for improving productivity and ensuring horizontal expansion of Aus rice in the tidal ecosystem of Bangladesh.

DATING ADOPTION AND INTENSIFICATION OF FOOD-CROPS: INSIGHTS FROM 4MSR (BINJOR), AN INDUS (HARAPPAN) SITE IN NORTHWESTERN INDIA

ABSTRACTHere we present direct dates of food grains and insights into agricultural strategies adopted by Harappans from a newly excavated Indus site 4MSR (Binjor) in northwestern India. The site revealed Early and Mature Harappan phases delimited by a Transitional phase based on ceramics and archaeological artifacts. The macro-botanical remains revealed that the site was occupied by an agricultural society during the Early phase (~2900−2600 BCE), whereas diversification of the economy including more craft specialization, along with an agricultural advancement was witnessed during the Mature phase (~2500−1800 BCE). The advent of summer crops during the Transitional phase (~2600−2500 BCE) indicates climate amelioration attributed to inception of strong Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM). By the end of Mature phase, millet was recorded due to a change in climatic (relatively lower moisture) conditions or drying of the river channel, which forced the settlers to shift the cropping (agricultural) strategy in the region. Plausibly, this unavailability of water during the end of Mature phase led the settlers to abandon the site in order to migrate somewhere else. The subsistence pattern indicates continuity and change in temporal domain likely owing to changing climatic/environmental conditions, resources and knowledge gained by exchange/trade of cultures over a time period between ~2900 BCE to 1800 BCE.

Development of drilling well irrigation to meet water needs in the rainfall of Sambirejo village, Kabupaten Langkat

One very important element in agriculture is water. The availability of water must be guaranteed so that plants can grow throughout the year. The lack of water availability means that crops cannot be produced throughout the year, causing farmers to become inadequate. Engineering irrigation is one of the systems that can regulate water availability throughout the year, but not all regions in Indonesia have such irrigation. Sambirejo Village is one of the villages in Langkat Regency which still utilizes a rainfed irrigation system. The main problem from Sambirejo Village, especially the Karya Tani Farmer Group, which is a service partner, is the unavailability of water to irrigate rice fields during the dry season. This unavailability of water causes a reduction in the productivity of farmers who are supposed to harvest three times to only twice a year. Through community service activities carried out the construction of borehole irrigation in Sembirejo Village. This method utilizes ground water as a source of water supply during the dry season. Drilled well irrigation can be enjoyed directly by farmers in the vicinity of the service area, and in the dry season the water needs for plants are available.

Changes in some haematological parameters in typhoid fever patients attending Landmark University Medical Center, Omuaran-Nigeria

BackgroundTyphoid or enteric fever is caused by Salmonella typhi. It is largely a disease of developing nations due to poor standard of hygiene and unavailability of potable water. The most prominent feature of the infection is fever which gradually rises to a high plateau. The prevalence of typhoid fever has been on the increase which is associated with several hematological parameters. ObjectivesThis study was carried out to determine the changes in various hematological parameters in our study subjects. MethodFour Hundred- (400) samples were obtained from volunteer subjects visiting the outpatient department of the Landmark University Medical Center. 200 typhoid positive samples were collected from subjects while 200 typhoid negative blood samples served as controls (From both male and female subjects each). Widal test was carried out as a confirmatory test for typhoid fever and evaluation of the hematological parameters were performed. The hematological parameters considered includes Packed Cell Volume (PCV), White Blood Cell count (WBC), Platelet count (PLT), Lymphocyte (LYMP) their implications on both male and female typhoid fever patients were also determined. ResultsThe result showed a significant reduction in the values for PCV, WBC, ESR and HAE concentration in typhoid positive males in comparison to typhoid negative males. In females, a significant decrease was observed in values for PCV, ESR, HAE concentration and PLT in typhoid positive females when compared to typhoid negative females. These parameters when compared showed a significant decrease recorded in PCV, ESR and HAE concentration of the typhoid positive male patients in comparison to typhoid positive female patients. ConclusionThis study implies that anemia, bone marrow suppression and hemaphagocytosis are likely resulting factors of typhoid fever due to the changes in the hematological parameters. Therefore, these parameters have to be further studied to allow for efficient management of this illness.

Levels of heavy metals and their health risk assessment from wastewater irrigated spinach in railway quarters, Bauchi, Bauchi state, Nigeria

Scarcity of irrigation water can affect human health and economic development. Increase in industrial activities has led to the discharge of wastewater in large quantities which is used for the cultivation of vegetables in urban areas due to unavailability of clean water. Health problems in humans arise as a result of the consumption of vegetables contaminated with heavy metals. The health risk assessment of heavy metals through consumption of contaminated spinach (Amarantus caudatus) grown with wastewater of Railway Quarters was evaluated. The results obtained from the study area revealed that the wastewater and spinach respectively collected from Railway Quarters contain some amount of heavy metals. The concentrations (µg/cm3) of cadmium (0.01), chromium (0.01), manganese (0.05), nickel (0.03) and lead (0.02) in the wastewater studied are within the threshold limits of SON (2002, 2007), Indian standard limits, NAFDAC (2001), WHO (2011) and FAO (1985). The concentration of the observed copper (0.10 µg/cm3) exceeded the recommended limits set by Indian Standard (0.05 µg/cm3). The levels (mg/kg or µg/g) of cadmium (1.00), chromium (1.65), copper (7.70), manganese (12.65) and nickel (7.70) in spinach sample are all within the permissible limits set by various standard regulatory organizations, but the level of lead (6.60) assayed is far greater than the permissible and safe limit (2.50) of Indian Standard. The observed Health Risk Index (HRI) of cadmium (0.3000), chromium (0.0003), copper (0.2150), manganese (0.1240), nickel (0.1250) and lead (0.5000) are all less than 1.0000 which signifies that the spinach sample cultivated in Railway irrigation farm are relatively safe for human consumption.

Dry Taps? A Synthesis of Alternative "Wash" Methods in the Absence of Water and Sanitizers in the Prevention of Coronavirus in Low-Resource Settings.

Objective: Social distancing and hand washing with soap and water have been advocated as the main proactive measures against the spread of coronavirus. We sought to find out what other alternative materials and methods would be used among populations without running water and who may not afford alcohol-based sanitizers. Results: We reviewed studies that reported use of sand, soil, ash, soda ash, seawater, alkaline materials, and sunlight as possible alternatives to handwashing with soap and water. We identified the documented mechanism of actions of these alternative wash methods on both inanimate surfaces and at cellular levels. The consideration of use of these alternative locally available in situations of unavailability of soap and water and alcohol-based sanitizers is timely in the face of coronavirus pandemic. Further randomized studies need to be carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of these alternatives in management of SARS-Cov-2.

Compliance with Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation and Its Associated Factors among Adolescent Girls in Tamale Metropolis of Ghana.

Background In Ghana, anaemia is a severe public health problem among adolescent girls. In an attempt to deal with this phenomenon, Ghana Ministry of Health in collaboration with other development partners developed and launched weekly iron and folic acid supplementation program for adolescent girls in Ghanaian junior high schools. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to determine the level of compliance with iron and folic acid supplementation (IFAS) and its associated factors among adolescent girls in the Tamale Metropolis of Ghana. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 424 randomly sampled adolescent girls in the Tamale Metropolis of Ghana from April to July 2019 using an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire. Twenty school health coordinators were purposively selected to answer questions on the challenges they face in implementing the IFAS program at the school level. Bivariate logistic regression and multivariate logistic regression were used to determine associations and strength of associations, respectively, at a significant threshold of p < 0.05. Results Compliance with the IFAS was low (26.2%). Adolescent girls who were aware of anaemia (AOR = 3.57 (95% CI: 1.96, 6.51) p < 0.01), had good knowledge of anaemia (AOR = 1.82 (95% CI: 1.17, 2.81) p=0.01), and had good knowledge of the IFAS program (AOR = 2.29 (95% CI: 1.47, 3.57) p < 0.01) were significantly associated with compliance with the IFAS. The majority (60%) of the adolescent girls have ever missed taking the iron and folic acid (IFA) tablet because it was not issued to them by the teacher's concern while about 48.3% (169) of the adolescent girls are taking the tablet because it prevents anaemia. Adolescent girls perceiving the tablet as family planning medicine (88.8%) and unavailability of water in classrooms (18.8%) were cited as the major challenges by school health coordinators. Conclusion Compliance with the IFAS among adolescent girls was low. Level of education and occupation of mothers of adolescent girls, awareness on anaemia, and good knowledge of anaemia and of the IFAS program were significant predictors of compliance with the IFAS. Educating the adolescent girls on anaemia and benefits of the IFAS, constant supply of the IFA tablet, and engaging parents of the adolescent girls on the program will help improve the compliance level of the adolescent girls with the IFAS.

Childhood undernutrition in three disadvantaged East African Districts: a multinomial analysis

BackgroundUndernutrition is an important public health indicator for monitoring nutritional status and survival. In spite of its importance, undernutrition is a significant problem health problem in many East African communities. The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with childhood undernutrition in three disadvantaged East African Districts.MethodsWe examined data for 9270 children aged 0–59 months using cross-sectional survey from Gicumbi District in Rwanda, Kitgum District in Uganda and Kilindi District in Tanzania. We considered the level of undernutrition (stunting, wasting and underweight) as the outcome variables with four ordinal categories (severely undernourished, moderately undernourished, mildly undernourished, and nourished). Generalized linear latent and mixed models (GLLAMM) with the mlogit link and binomial family that adjusted for clustering and sampling weights were used to identify factors associated with undernutrition among children aged 0–59 months in three disadvantaged East African Districts.ResultsAfter adjusting for potential confounding factors, the odds of a child being stunted were higher in Gicumbi District in Rwanda while the odds of a child being wasted and underweight were higher in Kitgum District in Uganda. Having diarrhoea two weeks prior to the survey was significantly associated with severe undernutrition. Wealth index (least poor household), increasing child’s age, sex of the child (male) and unavailability of water all year were reported to be associated with moderate or severe stunting/wasting. Children of women who did not attend monthly child growth monitoring sessions and children who had Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) symptoms were significantly associated with moderate or severe underweight.ConclusionsFindings from our study indicated that having diarrhoea, having ARI, not having water availability all year and not attending monthly child growth monitoring sessions were associated with undernutrition among children aged 0–59 months. Interventions aimed at improving undernutrition in these disadvantaged communities should target all children especially those children from households with poor sanitation practices.

Farmers’ Perception on Irrigation Farming and the Factors Influencing Access to and Size of Irrigable lands in Northern Region, Ghana

Aim: The impacts of climate change and variability requires proactive and reactive adaptation. The high reliance of farmers on rainfed agriculture leads to their high vulnerability to climate change. As an agrarian economy, irrigation farming system is an essential proactive and/or reactive strategy for the increasing erratic rainfalls in Northern Ghana. This study analyzed the perceptions of smallholder farmers on irrigation farming and the factors that influence access to and size of irrigable lands among communities in the catchment of two irrigation dams.&#x0D; Study Design: The study adopted a multi-stage sampling procedure.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in the Northern Region of Ghana. The data for the study was collected in 2014.&#x0D; Methodology: Through a multi-stage sampling, a cross-sectional data was collected from 240 smallholder farmers. These included both irrigation farmers and non-irrigation farmers. The data was analyzed through switching regression and descriptive statistics.&#x0D; Results: The result revealed that water unavailability is not a major challenge to most irrigation farmers. The farmers engaged in irrigation vegetable farming mostly for cash purpose and also perceived a high demand for vegetables, especially in the dry season. From the farmers perception, group membership, distance to irrigable land, cost of irrigable land, leadership characteristics and nativity significantly influenced access to irrigable lands. From the econometric result, experience, farmer group, credit, extension, labour availability and age had significant influence on irrigation farming while education, experience, extension, sex and labour availability significantly influenced the acreage cultivated by the vegetable farmers.&#x0D; Conclusion: The study concluded that, while there is high market potential for irrigated produce, access to and the size of irrigable lands are significantly determined by a mixed of factors. Therefore, while farmers are encouraged to go into irrigation vegetable production, government’s policies such as ‘one village one dam’ should be effectively implemented to realize the needed results.

Water Management through Canal Blocking to Improving Rice Productivity in Langsat Permai Village, Bunga Raya District, Siak Regency, Riau Province

The low productivity of paddy in Langsat Permai Village, Bunga Raya District, Siak Regency, one of them is causes the unavailability of sufficient water for crop cultivation, so it is necessary to do water management by making canal blocking to be used on rice plants in the area. This is done to meet the water needs of rice plants during the dry season. Therefore, assistance is provided through water management in Langsat Permai Village, Bunga Raya District, Siak Regency. Mentoring strategies are carried out by discussing directly with farmer groups about the impact of making canal blocking. Through this activity, the availability of water for rice plants during the dry season is fulfilled. Production of 1 Ha of rice before the blocking canal produced 4-5 tons/harvest to 6-7.8 tons/harvest after the canal blocking.

The frost wave hypothesis: How the environment drives autumn departure of migratory waterfowl

Migration phenology plays a critical role in shaping bird life histories. While the spring migration phenology of birds has been widely studied, our understanding about the mechanisms underlying autumn migration is limited. Frost is an indicator of cold weather, food scarcity, and water unavailability, but how frost drives the autumn departure of migratory birds has not yet been quantified. In this study we propose the ‘frost wave hypothesis’, which posits that the autumn departure of waterfowl is driven by a successive wave of the onset of frost. Using bird satellite tracking data and generalized linear mixed models, we analyze how the departure probability of two waterfowl species during autumn migration is affected by frost, accumulated temperature, food, snow, ice, short-term weather conditions (i.e., wind, temperature and precipitation), remaining migration distances, relative stopover duration, and flight distances between stopover sites. We find that bird autumn departure probability sharply increases after the first frost spell when the accumulated temperature reaches 0 °C, facilitated by surface meridional wind and longer remaining migration distances. We underline the dominant effect of frost on autumn departure, as birds tend to leave even under head wind if the time lag since the onset of frost is large. Time constraints that trigger southward departure are likely to be stronger when migrating birds are still far from their wintering site. By riding the frost wave, birds manage to maximize stopover site utilization while escaping harsh environmental conditions. Our findings improve the understanding of annual avian migration and help quantify the impact of global climate change on migratory waterfowl.

Maternal and Child Health During Forced Displacement.

To discuss the effects of forced displacement on maternal and child health, highlight the major pitfalls in delivering humanitarian services to this vulnerable group, and underscore the need for multilayered interventions to improve health, protect rights, and reduce vulnerabilities during forced displacements. A comprehensive literature search was undertaken from databases including Medline, the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, Scopus, and ProQuest. No restrictions were placed on geographical region, type, and year of publication. The key words used were displacement, children, women, health, challenges, disaster response, emergency medicine, terrorism, maladjustment, morbidity, disaster response, cultural sensitivity, and interventions. Forced displacement negatively affects maternal and child health. The key challenges during forced displacement include food insecurity, lack of shelter, unavailability of clean water and sanitation, poor infrastructure of healthcare services, unavailability of birth attendants and healthcare professionals to manage medical emergencies, inaccessibility to educational and training facilities, and lack of cultural sensitivity of humanitarian workers. The ultimate outcome of forced displacement is a sudden rise in maternal and child mortality and morbidity, maladjustment, psychological issues, altered familial roles, displaced parenting, and vulnerability to exploitation. In view of Bronfenbrenner's socio-ecological framework, multilayered interventions are proposed to improve maternal and child health during forced displacements. In view of the effects of forced displacement on maternal and child health and considering the major pitfalls in the delivery of humanitarian services to this vulnerable group, the proposed multilayered interventions can improve health, protect rights, and reduce vulnerabilities surrounding maternal and child health during forced displacements.

Estimation of shadow prices of soil organic carbon depletion and freshwater depletion for use in LCA

The interpretation of differences between alternative systems in life cycle assessment (LCA) can be problematic when different impact categories point to different directions. Using shadow prices is one way to overcome this problem, as the results are expressed in a monetary value, making comparison easy for decision makers. However, for the International Reference Life Cycle Data System midpoint impact categories ‘water depletion’ and ‘land use’, the shadow prices were missing. In the current paper, these were derived from literature sources. Abatement-based shadow prices (Pa) were established from the costs of the abatement measures minus the additional benefits. The damage-based shadow price (Pd) was based on the economic damage per unit of impact. Damage to ecosystems or human health was not included, as monetary values were lacking. As a consequence, Pd is an underestimation. Pa prices for land use, based on soil organic carbon (SOC) depletion, were derived from the cost of abatement measures like adding organic matter to agricultural soil or changing tillage. The response of crop yield to SOC, for several countries and crops, was used for the Pd calculation. For water depletion, Pa was based on water saving measures and desalination techniques, and Pd was based on economic losses due to water unavailability. The following shadow prices were found for SOC depletion: Pa of 0.10 € kg−1 SOC and Pd of 0.0286 € kg−1 SOC. For water depletion, Pa of 15.8 € m−3 eq. was based on replacing turf with less-water-consuming planting. The value of water for irrigation was the base for the Pd 5.17 € m−3 eq. Freshwater and SOC Pa values unexpectedly exceeded the Pd values. This originated partly from the methods used. Pd was established by averaging marginal costs, while Pa used the most expensive measure, and this may lead to Pa exceeding Pd. Furthermore, the damage-based Pd for SOC and water depletion was mainly based on crop yield, and other types of ecological or societal damage will exist. Including these damages that lacked reliable data will increase Pd. The shadow prices presented here are the first science-based global estimates. For LCA, the Pd values should preferably be used. The values are regarded as conservative estimates since only economic damage was included as other damages like ecological damage could not be monetised. The estimated shadow prices were derived for impacts where economic data is relatively scarce, and this limited the quality of the estimates. More extensive studies are needed to further improve the quality of the estimated prices.