Household Water Supply Research Articles

Prevalencia de enfermedades asociadas al uso de agua contaminada en el Valle del Mezquital

<p><strong>Objetivo:</strong> determinar la prevalencia de enfermedades gastrointestinales vinculadas al uso de aguas contaminadas en los hogares con carencia de acceso a agua potable y saneamiento en el Valle del Mezquital en Hidalgo, México.</p><p><strong>Método:</strong> se utilizaron datos obtenidos de la <em>Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de 2012</em>; se elaboró un modelo logístico binomial considerando variables sociodemográficas y otras relacionadas con las fuentes de abastecimiento de agua y saneamiento en los hogares.</p><p><strong>Resultados:</strong> existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la probabilidad de presentar eventos de enfermedad en función al origen de la fuente del agua que llega a los hogares, la frecuencia de ésta, así como por la carencia de drenaje y de descarga directa en el sanitario.</p><p><strong>Limitaciones:</strong> los resultados son representativos de la región, pero no de cada municipio que lo conforma.</p><p><strong>Principales hallazgos:</strong> la falta de servicios básicos y de acceso a agua potable incrementa la probabilidad de eventos de enfermedad de tipo gastrointestinal en los hogares del Valle del Mezquital. Se recomienda implementar estrategias de política pública en términos de cobertura de servicios básicos, así como programas de tratamiento de agua que minimicen las afectaciones en la salud por el uso doméstico.</p>

Water access transformations: Metrics, infrastructure, and inequities

Scholarship on water insecurity has carried over an important insight from studies of food insecurity: Insecurity often occurs in the midst of plenty, and water insecurity is therefore better characterized by inaccessibility than by scarcity. Access to clean, adequate, and reliable water is, however, more challenging to systematize than access to food. In this paper, I ask what we can learn from situations in which arrangements for water access are undergoing rapid change, and I make a case for the centrality of infrastructure – systems of water storage and transport – to water security. Equitable access to water often depends on technologies that protect, filter, and distribute water; it also depends on social arrangements that protect the least powerful from exclusion. I analyse two water infrastructure projects in Ethiopia, one a project to protect village water supplies and the other a large hydroelectric dam. The project to protect springs used by villagers for household water supply had the unintended effect of limiting access to those who could pay fees to a water committee. The dam harnessed water to produce electricity and supply irrigated plantations, but deprived downstream communities of water for farming. Water infrastructure can have far-reaching implications for water access, both for better and for worse. It is often instrumental in securing one group’s access to water at the cost of another’s.

Physico-chemical and Bacteriological Survey of Household Water Supplies in Selected Communities in Anambra State, Nigeria

Physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of borehole water in seven communities in Anambra State were investigated to ascertain their portability and evaluate their pollution levels for household consumption. Obtained sample results were compared with threshold values reported by World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water purposes. Study results show that values for total hardness, lead, copper, zinc, iron and coliform count exceeded the WHO thresholds and as such made this resource unfit for human consumption. It is recommended that the state water board be revamped and its branches established in all communities of the state to ensure regulation and control of the water household water supplies.

Emerging infectious disease, the household built environment characteristics, and urban planning: Evidence on avian influenza in Vietnam

Recent concerns with pandemic outbreaks of human disease and their origins in animal populations have ignited concerns regarding connections between Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) and development. As disasters, health, and infectious disease become part of planning concern (Matthew & McDonald, 2007), greater focus on household infrastructure and EID disease outbreaks among poultry is warranted. Following Spencer (2013), this study examines the relationship between the mix of household-scale water supplies, sanitation systems, and construction materials, and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) among poultry in a developing country: Vietnam. Findings of our multivariate logistic regressions suggest that a non-linear, Kuznets-shaped urban transition (Spencer, 2013) has an independent effect on the outbreak of HPAI, especially as it relates to household-level sanitation infrastructure. We conclude that the Kuznets-shape development of household infrastructure characteristics in Vietnam play a significant role in explaining where poultry outbreaks occur. Using secondary data from the Census of Population and Housing, and the Agricultural Census at the District and Commune levels for the country of Vietnam, we performed logistic regression to test the relationship between outbreaks of HPAI in poultry and newly-developed “coherence indices” (Spencer, 2013) of household water supply, sanitation, and construction materials that measure nonlinear, transitional development. Results show that district-scale coherence indices are negatively and independently correlated with HPAI outbreaks, especially for sanitation. Findings also suggest that community-scale coherence of urban infrastructures is a powerful tool for predicting where HPAI poultry outbreaks are likely to occur, thereby providing health planners new tools for efficient surveillance.

Removal of aluminum from alkaline aqueous solution by adsorption on Degussa P25 TiO2 and vermiculite concrete‐supported ferric oxyhydroxide

AbstractThe current investigation on aluminum adsorption from an aqueous solution originated from the need to implement a water treatment technology that would decrease the prohibitive aluminum concentrations in the groundwater of the Khibiny Alkaline Massif (Kola Peninsula), which is limiting the use of this water source as a source for the household water supply in the area. TiO2 and vermiculite concrete‐supported ferric oxyhydroxide (VC) were used as adsorbents to remove aluminum from the alkaline aqueous solution, considering the water‐specific natural conditions of the Khibiny aquifer. The effects of pH, initial aluminum concentration, contact time, adsorbent dose, and ions present in Khibiny groundwater were investigated. The results showed that the adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo‐second order model, and the equilibrium data were described well by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. The aluminum adsorption on TiO2 exhibited a dramatically higher adsorption rate compared to VC; the adsorption equilibrium was reached in 30 and 240 minutes, respectively, while the maximum TiO2 and VC adsorption capacities were similar and had values of 6.85 and 6.75 mg g−1 as the results of laboratory tests revealed. It was shown that when these two adsorbents worked jointly the capacity reached 8.28 mg g−1 within 60 minutes at pH 9.0. No apparent significant effects on aluminum removal by adsorbents tested in the presence of SO42−, NO3−, and Cl− were observed. The obtained outcomes identify a possible approach and reliable foundation for water treatment technology to solve the problem of elevated aluminum concentrations in the household water of the Khibiny Alkaline Massif area as well as within other locations where the solution of this problem can improve living conditions or industrial technologies.

Sanitation predictors of childhood morbidities in Ethiopia: evidence from Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System

BackgroundFailure to provide adequate sanitation services to all people is perhaps the greatest development failure. Globally, billions of people have no access to improved sanitation facilities. Though the link between sanitation and childhood morbidities is established globally, the evidence is limited in rural parts of Ethiopia. This survey was, therefore, designed to determine the prevalence of common childhood morbidities and to identify sanitation predictors in rural parts of northwest Ethiopia.MethodsA re-census reconciliation, which is a cross-sectional design, was employed from October to December 2014. All households found in the research and demographic sites were included as study subjects. A questionnaire and an observational checklist were used to collect data. Households’ sanitation performances, house type, illumination, household energy sources, water supply, and waste management were assessed. The occurrence of childhood morbidities was determined from the occurrence of one or more water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) preventable diseases. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was done to identify the association of sanitation factors with childhood morbidities on the basis of adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and p value < 0.05.ResultsAbout 575 (7.00%) of under-five children had hygiene- and sanitation-related diseases. Gastrointestinal and respiratory health problems accounted for 287 (49.91%) and 288 (50.09%), respectively. Childhood morbidities among under-five children were associated with poor housing condition [AOR = 1.27, 95% CI = (1.04, 1.54)], dirty cooking energy sources [AOR = 1.52, 95% CI = (1.22, 1.89)], volume of water below 20 l/p/d [AOR = 1.95, 95% CI = (1.19, 3.18)], and narrow-mouthed water storage containers [AOR = 0.73, 95% CI = (0.56, 0.96)].ConclusionA significant proportion of under-five children had childhood morbidities in the study area. Housing condition, cooking energy sources, volume of water collected, and type of water storage containers were factors associated with the occurrence of childhood morbidities. Enabling the community to have the access to a safe and continuous supply of water and proper disposal of wastes, including excreta, is necessary with particular emphasis to the rural communities and semi-urban areas to reduce the occurrence of childhood morbidities.

Household drinking water safety among the population of Gaza Strip, Palestine: knowledge, attitudes, practices, and satisfaction

Abstract A descriptive cross-sectional study employing a structured questionnaire was employed to assess knowledge, attitude, practice, and satisfaction (KAPS) of Gaza's community on issues related to household drinking water safety. The results showed that of 1,857 household heads, 1,621 (87.3%) were males, with the majority (967, 52.1%) having a university educational level. Of surveyed households, 744 (40.1%) consisted of 5–7 persons and 885 (47.7%) of the households resided in refugee camps. Mean percentages for KAPS were 82 ± 15.5%, 64.9 ± 39.7%, 53.2 ± 14.1%, and 37.3 ± 26.56%, respectively. There were statistically significant associations between some sociodemographic variables and mean percentage of KAPS scores. Educational level was the only variable significantly associated (p &amp;lt; 0.05) with all mean KAPS scores. There was a significant positive linear correlation between knowledge-attitude (r = 0.362, p &amp;lt; 0.05), but a significant negative linear correlation between knowledge-practice (r = −0.070, p &amp;lt; 0.05) was also observed. Therefore, the Local Government Authority (LGA) should arrange community awareness campaigns on the importance of safety and hygiene measures of drinking water storage. Furthermore, and due to the poor financial capabilities of the LGA in Gaza, it is highly recommended that LGA contact relevant international donors in order to support programs aiming at improving household water supply.

Contribution of Odoba Forest Reserve to Livelihoods of the Rural People in Ogbadibo Local Government Area, Benue State, Nigeria

The study was conducted to assess the contribution of Odoba forest reserve to rural livelihoods of the communities in Ogbadibo Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria. Pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires were administered to three hundred and seventy-six respondents in 188 households in four communities. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Fifteen different wood and non-wood products were collected by the respondents from the forest reserve with fuel wood products being the product mostly collected from the reserve (65.5%) followed by water supply from the streams in the forest reserve (59%). Others were edible vegetable (56.6%), folder (53.6%), mush room (53.3%), medicinal herbs (52.6%) and timber (50.3%), Bush Meat (46.7%), Chewing stick (43.0%), Pole (40.5%), Honey (37.8%), Snail (27%), Caterpillar (25%), Cricket (20.4%) and Climbers (19%). The result also shows that forest resources contributed very high to the livelihood of the people in the areas of food for household consumption, additional income, medicinal values, water supply and trading of forest products. Furthermore, the study results showed that the most need met by the people from the sale of forest products is feeding of households (19.4%) and investing in farming activities (13.8%). The communities differ significantly (P=0.05) in the contribution of the forest reserve to their livelihoods. The study recommends that State Government, local authorities and aid agencies should provide alternative sources of fuel energy by establishing village owned solar power plants and fuelwood efficient stoves. This will reduce dependence on the forest reserve for energy and also curtail deforestation of the reserve. Modified Taungya system in the reserve to engage households in forest regeneration efforts as well as the sharing of benefits from such efforts should be included in policies of the Government.

Experimental Investigation of Water Quality and Inorganic Solids in Malaysian Urban Lake, Taman Tasik Medan Idaman

AbstractWater scarcity is a persistent crisis during dry weather periods in the Gombak area, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Drinking and household water supply in Gombak is usually based on groundwater sources, with the lack of rainfall in key catchment areas during the dry period causing groundwater levels to decline, temporarily resulting in inability of the water pumping system to supply water. To address this issue, the present study investigated an alternative surface water supply source, namely Tasik Taman Idaman Lake. The study objective was to analyse the physicochemical characteristics of the lake water and determine the water standard for potability. A range of water quality parameters were measured in the present study, many being outside the desired levels, based on the standard “Class I” according to Malaysian EQA (Environmental Quality Act 2009). Of these parameters, only pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were within drinkable level, while the other parameters would have to undergo purification processes to attain the standard “Class I” status.

Household and Drinking Water Supply and Water Consumption in Kilis Province

In this research, current drinking and household water system of Kilis province has examined. This study aims to determine water consumption of each person in order to using current water resources more efficiently. Examination has also related to current water potentials, water supply line, water storages and water distribution lines. The water (household and drinking) usage of the city of Kilis is supplied by domestic and wells in the city. The water, supplied from underground and ground resources is using in residence, public corporation, business and industrial sectors. Measurable and immeasurable water amounts distributed to city are compared then water usage amounts rated to population which is important parameter of estimation of water usage in order to find water usage per capita in Kilis province. Finally, water consumption per capita is expected to be 171 lt/day (gross) 79 lt/day (net) with roughly around %53 losses. Keywords : Kilis province, Drinking and household water, Water need, Water losses, Water supplying. DOI : 10.7176/JSTR/5-2-41

A culture-dependent and metagenomic approach of household drinking water from the source to point of use in a developing country

Rural households in developing countries rely on communal water supplies and household water frequently becomes contaminated following its collection, transportation and during its storage. Using culture-dependent and -independent techniques, we examined the changes in microbial water quality between communal tap water and household water storage in a rural area of Cameroon, Africa. The culturable fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) were used to assess the potential health risks associated with different household water storage conditions (e.g., type of container and open vs. closed container) and interventions (e.g., water storage days, cleaned on the last day of use, and hygiene practices). Only the amount of days the water was stored significantly differed (p-value < 0.05), which showed that potential health risks increased when water was stored for more than 3 days. The higher abundance of molecular FIB in biofilm than household water suggested that omnipresent biofilm in household water could potential health risk. The high-throughput sequencing revealed that the most abundant phylum was Proteobacteria, followed by Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes in both the water and the biofilm samples. Bacterial genera seen in biofilm bacteria, such as Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and Comamonas. Acinetobacter, Chryseobacterium, Stenotrophomonas and Corynebacterium, were relatively more abundant in the biofilm than in the water. Potential bacterial pathogens including Acinetobacter baumannii, Citrobacter freundii, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Haemophilus influenza, were detected in household water and biofilm. The microbial quality might be affected by water-storage time and households repeatedly using the same water storage containers without proper sanitization, triggering microbial regrowth and biofilm formation on water containers. Higher bacterial diversity and potentially pathogenic bacteria found in the biofilm samples of a household water supply are unhealthy for the house’s inhabitants. It is important to develop interventions aimed at preventing the formation of these dangerous biofilms in a communal water supply.

Removal of natural organic matter by an end-free gravity-driven membrane system combined with powdered activated carbon for household water supply

Removal of natural organic matter by an end-free gravity-driven membrane system combined with powdered activated carbon for household water supply

MODERN PROBLEMS OF THE APPLICATION OF SANITARY RULES AND NORMS ON THE ORGANIZATION OF SANITARY PROTECTION ZONES OF WATER SUPPLY SOURCES AND WATER PIPES FOR DRINKING PURPOSES

Introduction. Fundamental changes in the political and social infrastructure of the Russian Federation, the active development of the market economy, the assertion of legal statehood turned out The Russian legislation to have entered a qualitatively new state, a notable feature of which was the interdepartmental and intrastructural inconsistency. The sanitary rules on the sanitary protection zones of water supply sources have not passed this fate as a result of the problems of application of the norms of the document into the practice. The purpose of the study: to study of legal acts of the Russian Federation, establishing requirements for the areas of sanitary protection of sources of drinking and domestic water supply, identification of contradictions and development of proposals for amendments and additions to the existing sanitary rules on the areas of sanitary protection of water sources and drinking water supply. Material and methods. The article considers Federal laws and Government resolutions, sanitary rules, and norms, projects of sanitary protection zones of drinking and household water supply sources, literature sources as materials. The methodological basis of the research was the complex of General scientific methods for the study of public relations arising in the field of ensuring the hygienic safety of sources of drinking and economic-household water supply: analysis, systemic-structural, comparative. Results. The paper presents proposals to bring up to date the terms, names, and powers of the parties to the relationship, as well as clarifying the requirements for the composition of the project, its text, and cartographic part. Conclusion. Submitted proposals will create a consistent structure of the constituent elements of the regulated relations, to ensure the symmetry of the standards document with standards that determine the safety of drinking and economic - household water supply of the population in other normative acts. In addition, the proposed changes will form a system of rights and obligations, resulting in the liability for the violation of sanitary norms in the establishment of the boundaries of sanitary protection zones.

Subjective Well-Being Effects of Coping Cost: Evidence from Household Water Supply in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Coping with unreliable water supply—in terms of quantity and quality—can impose significant costs on households as they are required to spend more resources on coping strategies such as purchasing, storing, treating, pumping, and collecting. Does increased coping cost affect people’s subjective well-being? We answer this question using unique panel data on urban households in the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal from 2001 and 2014. Using previously computed coping cost estimates, we examine the association between total coping cost and both evaluative and hedonic measures of subjective well-being. To understand the underlying mechanisms, we examine the detailed composition of household coping cost and also the correlation between coping cost and time use. We take necessary steps to address potential endogeneity in coping cost and subjective well-being. Our main finding is that increased coping cost is positively correlated with evaluative well-being but not with hedonic well-being. This result is robust to alternate specifications. Exploration of mechanisms suggests that this may be owing to spending on storage tanks and treatment systems, which are likely to be perceived as long-term ‘investments’ that make people more resilient to water insecurity, and not ‘costs’. Further, increased coping cost significantly reduces time spent on collecting water, which may also explain the positive correlation between coping cost and evaluative well-being.

Study of aluminium in groundwater using chemometric methods

ABSTRACTThe field dataset including physico-chemical characteristics of Khibiny alkaline massif groundwater aquifer was analysed for the first time by applying chemometric methods to explore the relationships between investigated parameters in both time and frequency domains. Elevated Al concentration in water of this aquifer is described as a serious health concern when used for the household water supply. The time series of 12 physico-chemical parameters were examined by using Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression and spectral analysis based on fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. Computed pairwise correlation coefficients matrix revealed that pH values, NO3−, SO42−, Cl− and TDS correlate with Al concentrations at a statistically significant level (α-level = 0.05). The multiple regression model including Cl−, NO3− and pH explains up to 54% of Al concentrations temporal variation in groundwater. Fourier coefficients, power spectral density (PSD) and cumulative spectral power (CSP) were calculated for Al, pH, NO3− and Cl− time series to identify and analyse the strength of their variations as a function of frequency. Calculations revealed the spectrums of these variables include three main frequency bands corresponding approximately to 5–7, 13–17 and 20–34 month periods. The fluctuations within these bands contribute mostly to the total temporal variation of Al, Cl−, NO3− concentrations and pH values.

ОЦІНКА СТАНУ ВОДОПРОВІДНО-КАНАЛІЗАЦІЙНОГО ГОСПОДАРСТВА УКРАЇНИ

The article analyzes the condition of the water supply and sewerage system of Ukraine (WSS). The WSS is a water supply and sanitation system, including water treatment facilities and sewage systems, pumping stations, water supply sources, water body sites used for diluting and treating sewage, and other real estate. It is emphasized that at the current moment in the industry a considerable number of problems have accumulated. The critical condition of the fixed assets of WSS enterprises - the depreciation of funds exceeds 65%. High energy consumption of water production - energy intensity of production of 1 m3 of water in Ukraine is in the range 0.44 - 1.82 kWh; at the same time in Berlin - 0.27 kWh; Shanghai - 0.28 kWh). The growth of accidents at the water supply and sewerage systems. Loss of water during transportation - the indicator of water losses in urban networks remains too high and lies within the limits of 0.4-3.0 m3 / km / h, in comparison with those in Western Europe, which are 0.1-0.4 m3 / km / h.). Pollution of drinking water. Shortage of financial resources. Growth of people's debts for water supply and sewerage services: as of December 31, 2017, the population's arrears for water supply and sanitation are 1.8 billion UAH. And other problems. No less urgent problems of the water supply of Ukraine are: the imperfection of water policy in the development of water supply systems for cities and settlements; low provision of centralized water supply to the rural population; insufficient provision of water supply systems with water treatment facilities for drinking purposes; departmental fragmentation of the systems of household drinking water supply; imperfection of the methodology of planning and design of long-term development of water supply systems, populated areas; low coverage of the facilities of abstraction, supply, distribution of water and consumers; irrational use of water; lack of economic incentives for the rational use of water. The main causes that have caused such a critical situation are identified, namely: high-energy intensity and low efficiency of communal systems, significant water losses; obsolete water purification technologies; imperfection of the regulatory framework.

Associations between longitudinal serum perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) levels and measures of thyroid hormone, kidney function, and body mass index in the Fernald Community Cohort

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a diverse class of manufactured compounds used in a wide range of industrial processes and consumer products and have been detected in human serum worldwide. Previous cross-sectional and cohort studies in humans have suggested exposure to PFAS is associated with a wide array of chronic diseases, including endocrine disruption, developmental health effects, cancer and metabolic changes. We examined the associations between a panel of eight PFAS and indicators of thyroid disruption, kidney function, and body mass index (BMI), all of which were measured at repeated time points (1990–2008) over the course of the study. Participants (N = 210) were selected from the Fernald Community Cohort based on household water supply from a PFAS-contaminated aquifer. In adjusted repeated measures models, we observed several notable associations between serum PFAS and thyroid hormones as well as kidney function as measured by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). An interquartile (IQR) increase in serum PFOS was associated with a 9.75% (95% CI = 1.72, 18.4) increase in thyroid stimulating hormone. An IQR increase in serum PFNA, PFHxS, and PFDeA was associated with a −1.61% (95% CI = −3.53, −0.59), −2.06% (95% CI = −3.53, −0.59), and −2.20% (95% CI = −4.25, −0.14) change in eGFR, respectively. On the other hand, an IQR increase in serum Me-PFOSA was associated with a 1.53% (95% CI = 0.34, 2.73) increase in eGFR. No significant associations with BMI and serum PFAS were noted. Our findings are in agreement with previous reports that serum PFAS are associated with altered kidney and thyroid function.

Peoples’ Perception of the Water Salinity Impacts on Human Health: A Case Study in South-Eastern Coastal Region of Bangladesh

The salinity intrusion into fresh groundwater is a serious problem in coastal regions of Bangladesh. It has both direct and indirect effects on human well-being. This study was carried out in two coastal villages of south-eastern part of Bangladesh with the aim of examining peoples’ perception of the water salinity impacts on human health. Data were collected from randomly selected 153 semistructured household interviews, 10 key-informant interviews and two group discussions. The water salinity was measured for shallow tube-well (STW) and pond in three distinct seasons. The mean water salinity of STW varied from 5.11 to 6.48 dS/m, while pond water salinity level was in the range of 0.11–3.12 dS/m. The salinity level varied depending on depth of tube-well and distance from the sea. Due to the use of saline water, villagers suffered from several diseases including skin diseases, hair loss, diarrhea, gastric and high blood pressure. In one village high salinity restricted villagers to practice agriculture on limited agricultural land. Increasing salinity due to adverse climatic conditions in coastal areas would pose a serious threat on household water supplies. Suggestions are made to improve the management of fresh surface water and groundwater resources in salt-affected areas and to explore rainwater harvesting as a sustainable solution.

South African local government perceptions of the state of water security

South Africa is one of the 40 driest countries in the world with an annual average rainfall of less than 500 mm. In addition, South Africa’s rate of economic development is closely linked to its level of water security, as rising water stress and increasing supply variability, flooding, inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation, and higher levels of water pollution could be creating a drag on economic growth. Despite the high premium placed on our water resources, there is no commonly shared understanding of water security. This paper reports on a stakeholder analysis conducted in two South African municipalities to determine their perceived state of water security. We investigated how people, from different lifestyles, perceive water security in the Greater Sekhukhune District Municipality and the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. We specifically asked respondents if water security had been achieved in the areas. The inland-situated Sekhukhune has a drier climate and a rural socio-economic profile as opposed to the coastal, urbanised eThekwini with its complex economy and diverse socio-economic structure. We conducted face-to-face structured interviews with a diverse stakeholder group in the municipalities and focus groups in two communities of each municipality: Leeuwfontein and Motetema (Sekhukhune) and Inanda and Ntshongweni (eThekwini). Following a qualitative analysis, we found that water security, therefore, is a state of mind based on context-specific (i.e. localised and individualised) perceptions and practices held by individuals of water-related threats and/or opportunities and how it influences them, their surroundings and their interactions with others. For instance, people perceive drought to be a water security challenge only when it affects their daily lives such as household water supply or the availability of water for livestock. We propose a number of policy interventions and response strategies based on these context-specific water security notions.

Technologies for the Comprehensive Exploitation of the Geothermal Resources of the North Caucasus Region

Technology for the integrated development of low-temperature geothermal resources using the thermal and water potentials for various purposes is proposed. The heat of the thermal waters is utilized in a low-temperature district heating system and for heating the water in a hot water supply system. The water cooled in heat exchangers enters a chemical treatment system where it is conditioned into potable water quality and then forwarded to the household and potable water supply system. Efficient technologies for removal of arsenic and organic contaminants from the water have been developed. For the uninterrupted supply of the consumers with power, the technologies that use two and more types of renewable energy sources (RESs) have the best prospects. Technology for processing organic waste using the geothermal energy has been proposed. According to this technology, the geothermal water is divided into two flows, one of which is delivered to a biomass conversion system and the other is directed to a geothermal steam-gas power plant (GSGP). The wastewater arrives at the pump station from which it is pumped back into the bed. Upon drying, the biogas from the conversion system is delivered into the combustion chamber of a gas-turbine plant (GTP). The heat of the turbine exhaust gases is used in the GSGP to evaporate and reheat the low-boiling working medium. The working medium is heated in the GSGP to the evaporation temperature using the heat of the thermal water. High-temperature geothermal brines are the most promising for the comprehensive processing. According to the proposed technology, the heat energy of the brines is utilized to generate the electric power at a binary geothermal power station; the electric power is then used to extract the dissolved chemical components from the rest of the brine. The comprehensive utilization of high-temperature brines of the East-Precaucasian Artesian Basin will allow to completely satisfy the demand of Russia for lithium carbonate and sodium chloride.