Household Water Supply Research Articles

Shallow Groundwater Quality and Human Health Risk Assessment in Holte, a Town in Southern Ethiopia

Groundwater quality and human health risk assessment are critical for the long-term usage of household water supplies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate groundwater quality and human health risk in Holte, a town in the Derashe Special Woreda in southern Ethiopia. Water samples from seven shallow groundwater wells were taken and examined for hydrogeochemical properties. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was developed to assess the suitabilityof groundwater for drinking. Groundwater hydrochemistry types and evolutionary processes were investigated. The results suggested that the typical pH of groundwater samples had an average pH of 7.99. The values of electrical conductivity (EC), bicarbonate (HCO3) and total dissolved solid (TDS) in all samples were above the recommended upper limit of World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water. Based on the hydrochemical findings, the orders of cationic abundance and anionic abundance in the groundwater were Ca²⁺ < Mg²⁺ < K⁺ < Na⁺ and F⁻ < SO₄²⁻ < Cl⁻< HCO₃⁻, respectively. According to the Piper Tri-linear Diagram, the majority of groundwater samples were found to have Mixed Ca-Na-HCO3. The Gibbs fields results showed that evaporation dominated groundwater quality, whereas chemical weathering of rock-forming minerals dominated the remaining samples. The calculated WQI result showed that 57.1% (4 handpumps) of groundwater samples from the town had acceptable water quality, but 42.9% (3 handpumps) had poor water quality. The finding of this study suggests that groundwater quality parameters should be tested and monitored on handpumps at sample locations 1, 2, and 3 in the town to minimize human health risks and ensure long-term socioeconomic development.

Aggregation in bottom-up vulnerability assessments and equity implications: The case of Jordanian households’ water supply

Bottom-up methods for water resources modeling rely on acceptability thresholds to find, through a response surface, which deeply uncertain futures lead to system failure. They commonly treat water users as aggregate actors, which may preclude analysis of the equity impacts of interventions. This paper explores how aggregation choices for large groups of water users lead to different policy recommendations in response surface assessments. Two aggregation methods with varying parameters are considered: percentile satisfaction targets and generalized mean. A 2-dimensional stress-test assessment across groundwater availability and population is applied to household water supply in Jordan. The study compares six different policies covering supply enhancement and rebalancing, using a country-wide multi-agent model that characterizes households across socioeconomic strata. For different aggregation levels, policies are ordered by their associated robustness index. Results show that aggregation choices strongly determine policy preference. A focus on the most vulnerable households favors the equalization of access to water, in terms of regional allocation and weekly supply durations, as it substantially reduces robustness disparity. Combined policies with additional resources allow to withstand higher levels of stress under most aggregation choices. Preferences defined by aggregation intervals provide a finer understanding of trade-offs among water users and may improve deliberation over equity under deep uncertainty.

Justification of the priority indicators choice for water quality control in aquifers

Introduction. The study of the aquifers water quality is an urgent task due to the increasing volumes of groundwater consumed, on the one hand, and the supply of drinking water to the population with insufficient water treatment or without it at all, on the other. In the Leningrad Region, one thousand three hundred thirty two water sources are used for drinking and household water supply to the population, while water without water treatment is supplied to the population of a significant number of settlements. Materials and methods. In this study, a systematic analysis, statistical analysis, and the first stage of health risk assessment - the identification of danger were conducted. Research materials included 2634 water quality laboratory studies protocols (135200 studies) of 728 underground water sources of the Leningrad region for 2018-2021; data of the Federal Information Fund for Social and Hygienic Monitoring (FIF SGM) (34709 studies) for 2009-2019, reports on the results of searches and assessments of groundwater reserves for settlements water supply for 2003-2015; sanitary and epidemiological conclusions on the possibility of using water sources for drinking and household water supply, placed in the register of the Federal Service for Supervision in Protection of the Rights of Consumer and Man Wellbeing. Results. The analysis of the laboratory examinations results of the underground water quality, due to natural factors, from various aquifers was exploited in the studied area. Substances which concentrations exceed the maximum permissible level have been identified. The first carried out stage of health risk assessment included hazard identification with ranking of chemicals by hazard indices for all operational aquifers. Recommendations are given on the adjustment of social-hygienic monitoring and industrial control programs of underground water quality, as well as on the improvement of water treatment systems. Limitations. In this study there was a limitation on the nitrogen triad compounds origin and petroleum products analysis, in addition, the health risk assessment was limited to the hazard identification stage, due to the fact that exposure assessment was not performed. Conclusion. Based on the ranking, there were identified carcinogenic substances as follows: arsenic, beryllium, lead, cadmium and substances that don`t have a carcinogenic effect: fluoride ion, ammonium ion, calcium, sodium, barium, magnesium, nitrates, nitrites, manganese, iron, which must be included in the groundwater industrial control programs.

Determination of Key Quality Indicators for Organization of Potable Water Source Monitoring under Changing Climatic Conditions

Background: In the context of deteriorating surface water quality, it is important to create a monitoring system to control constantly changing indicators that can affect the quality of both natural and potable water supplied to the population. Organic carbon is one of the key indicators reflecting the rate of production and destruction, climate change and anthropogenic impacts, safety and efficiency of potable water treatment. Objective: To study key indicators in the organization of potable water source quality monitoring. Materials and methods: In 2020–2021, monthly water sampling was carried out in a reservoir serving as the source of household and potable water supply of a large industrial city of the Sverdlovsk Region, and after water treatment. Water temperature, dissolved total, organic, and inorganic carbon, pH, the permanganate index (PI), hardness, and dry residue were measured. We then analyzed correlations between the indicators and assessed the efficiency of water treatment. Results: Maximum concentrations of Ctotal (54.3 mg/dm3) and Corg (36.0 mg/dm3) in the source water were found in January 2021. The predominance of Cinorg concentrations compared to Corg was mainly observed in warm months of the year. Water treatment generally decreased the content of Ctotal in potable water by 12–32 %, Corg by 12–47 %, Cinorg by 6–32 %, and PI by 28–68 %, except for a few months. In spring and summer 2021, we noted a decrease in PI in the reservoir; compared to other seasons, an increase in water pH was revealed in summer. We established a negative correlation between concentrations of organic carbon and water temperature. Conclusions: Monitoring studies of the surface potable water source have been organized. We revealed seasonal patterns of carbon changes and indicators of the mineral composition of water, and demonstrated the efficiency of water treatment.

Socio-economic and Household Characteristics Associated with Work-Family Conflict among Female Primary School Teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria

This study focused on the socio-economic and household characteristics associated with work-family conflict among female primary school teachers in Enugu state, Nigeria. Cross-sectional and correlational study design were used to collect data from 2428 female primary school teachers in Enugu state, Nigeria. Structured questionnaire was used to obtain data on socio-economic and household characteristics, while Work and Family Conflict Scale was used to assess work-family conflict in the dimensions of work to family, family to work and overall work and family interference. Analyses were performed using IBM-SPSS version 23 software. Descriptive data were presented as frequencies and percentages, while Chi square was used to test the hypotheses at p < 0.05. Result showed that 23% of the respondents experienced work-family conflict with higher rate (29.9%) of work to family conflict than 25.1% of family to work conflict. Higher salary, urban location, living in ≥ 2-bedroom apartment and using communal toilet and bathroom at home were socio-economic factors significantly (p < 0.05) associated with increase in all the dimensions of work-family conflict. On the other hand, household characteristics associated with higher work-family conflict include; having dependent children, age of oldest child > 12 years old, caring for chronically ill family members, and uneasy accessibility of household water supply. Caring for the elderly and having house helps were associated with increased work to family conflict while household size was not found a factor in any dimension of work-family conflict.

The ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND MANAGEMENT OF URBAN HOUSEHOLD WATER SUPPLY: AN OVERVIEW IN CASE OF DURAME CITY, KAMBATA TEMBARO ZONE, SNNP REGION, ETHIOPIA JANUARY, 2019

The provision of urban infrastructure like water service has become a major concern in many developed and developing countries. Access to safe water and sanitary means of waste disposal is universal needs and indeed basic human rights. Besides, they are essential elements of human development and poverty alleviation and constitute an obligatory component of primary health care. The main objective of this study is to assess issues, challenges and management of urban household water supply: in case of Durame city, Kambata Tembaro Zone, SNNP Region. The study is descriptive in its nature and both qualitative and quantitative research Approach with a sample size of 120 which selected through systematic random sampling method used. Interview questionnaires were employed for data collection. Lastly the data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools like frequency and percentage. The study findings revealed that factors like, shortage of water at the sources; rapid population growth, electric power failure, and rapid urbanization were classified to be main causes of water supply shortage to the city communities. The gap between demand and output is increasing from year to year as a result of the aforementioned primary factors. Water source for the city entirely relying only on groundwater is not enough. The study therefore recommends that the groundwater source has to be enlarged by surface water through water conservation techniques. Therefore, as a long- run solution to water supply shortage in the city great attention should be given for surface water development. Furthermore, surface water might serve as a recharging source for groundwater sources in the surrounding area. Through water conservation techniques around the water potential areas (boreholes sites) groundwater have to be recharged so as to balance the recharging and discharging rates. On the other hand, bottom-up community engagement should be promoted, and existing women's groups such as religious, trade, and professional associations should be involved in order to debate how to utilize water responsibly.

Applying Saudi clay deposits for treatment of household water at the point-of-use

This research aims to beneficiate the clay deposits abundant in the Al Baha district to produce ceramic filters for “point-of-use” household water treatment technology to remove dissolved solids from water that is no longer valid for drinking purposes to meet the needs of the community through a safe household and industrial water supply after further treatment purposes. In addition, it helps to reduce the expenses of citizens earmarked to buy drinking water. A sample of laterite, clay, and kaolin from Al Baha district was thermally treated at 800 °C, acid treated with HCl, analyzed by XRD, FTIR, and SEM, and tested for treatment of household water. The temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured. In the application step for point-of-use water treatment of household water, the treated materials were introduced in calcined kaolin filters and commercial polypropylene filters. Based on the results of household water treatment with raw and treated clay materials, the raw clay materials, has poor adsorption capacity. The thermal treatment of clay samples dehydrates the clay minerals into sintered aluminosilicates and enhances the conversion of poorly crystallized iron oxide to α-Fe2O3 without improving the adsorption capacity of clay materials. However, the acid treatment of the clay samples removes iron-bearing minerals leaving behind amorphous aluminosilicate matter characterized with improved adsorption capacity. It was concluded that the acid treatment of clay material by concentrated HCl acid completely leaches iron oxide phases and broke down and disintegrated the clay minerals into the amorphous matter with enhanced the adsorption capacity. The combination of selected acid-treated laterite, clay, and charcoal for the household water treatment filter at the point of use in the calcined kaolin filter and the polypropylene filter reduced the TDS content by 40–42%.

Higher levels of nonylphenol were found in human urine and drinking water from rural areas as compared to metropolitan regions of Wuhan, China

The suspected endocrine disruptor nonylphenol (NP) is closely associated with anthropogenic activities; therefore, studies on this compound have been clustered in urban areas. This study investigated the NP concentrations in drinking water sources (n = 8), terminal tap water (n = 36), and human urine samples (n = 127) collected from urban and rural areas in Wuhan, China. The mean concentrations of NP measured in drinking water sources in urban and rural areas were 92.3 ± 7.5 and 11.0 ± 0.8 ng/L (mean ± SD), respectively, whereas the mean levels in urban and rural tap waters were 5.0 ± 0.7 and 44.2 ± 2.6 ng/L (mean ± SD), respectively. Nevertheless, NP was detected in 74.1% and 75.4% of the human urine samples from urban and rural participants, with geometric mean concentrations of 0.19 ng/mL (0.26 µg/g creat) and 0.27 ng/mL (0.46 µg/g creat), respectively. Although the NP concentrations measured in the drinking water sources of urban areas were significantly higher than those in rural areas (P < 0.05), the tap water and urine NP concentrations measured in urban areas were unexpectedly lower than those of rural areas (P < 0.05). Additionally, this investigation showed that the materials comprising household water supply pipelines and drinking water treatment processes in the two areas were also different. Our results indicated that the levels of exposure to NP in drinking water and human urine in rural areas were not necessarily lower than those in urban areas. Thus, particular attention should be paid to rural areas in future studies of NP.

Analysis of the water state monitoring regulatory support in Ukraine

The problem of water quality status in Ukraine remains relevant. Water resources act as a source of industrial and household water supply, therefore they play a decisive role in the development of the entire national economy and in the life of the population. During the implementation of the water management policy in our country for many decades, water has never been considered as the basis for the life support of natural ecosystems and humans, the economic state of water systems and their impact on biodiversity have not been taken into account or predicted. Traditionally, water was considered and used only as an economic resource for industrial and agricultural production, electricity generation, as well as for wastewater discharge, which ultimately led to the exhaustion of the natural and ecological potential of water resources. Among the main problems associated with water resources, which in turn are due to the peculiarities of the formation of water resources in the regions of Ukraine, is the imbalance of the placement schemes of the most water-intensive enterprises and the inheritance of imperfect water policy. State water monitoring is carried out for the protection and reproduction of water resources. Currently in Ukraine, the main requirements for the organization of state water monitoring are determined by the "Procedure for state water monitoring implementation", approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine Resolution dated September 19, 2018 No. 758, which entered into force on January 1, 2019. It defines the purpose, main tasks of monitoring, its organization, etc., which do not contradict the main positions of similar European documents. Actually, the most significant difference between the modern environmental legislation of Ukraine from the European one is that it is predominantly declarative is almost not implemented, instead the sources of EU law determine the quantitative and qualitative indicators that must be achieved by each country over a certain period of time. The course taken by our state towards European integration in this area also requires compliance with the level of requirements of domestic regulatory documents with the level of requirements adopted in the EU documents. In this article, the state of normative and methodological support for monitoring the state of the waters of our country is investigated and recommendations are developed for improving the current regulatory documentation to bring it into line with the level of international and European standards.

Enteric Pathogens Risk Factors Associated with Household Drinking Water: A Case Study in Ugu District Kwa-Zulu Natal Province, South Africa.

The occurrence of diarrheal infections depends on the level of water and sanitation services available to households of immunocompromised individuals and children of less than five years old. It is therefore of paramount importance for immunocompromised individuals to be supplied with safe drinking water for better health outcomes. The current study aimed at ascertaining the probability of infection that Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio cholerae, and rotavirus might cause to rural dwellers as compared to urban dwellers. Both culture-based and molecular-based methods were used to confirm the presence of target microorganisms in drinking water samples, while Beta-Poisson and exponential models were used to determine the health risk assessment. Results revealed the presence of all targeted organisms in drinking water. The estimated health risks for single ingestion of water for the test pathogens were as follows: 1.6 × 10−7 for S. typhimurium, 1.79 × 10−4 for S. dysenteriae, 1.03 × 10−3 for V. cholerae, 2.2 × 10−4 for E. coli O157:H7, and 3.73 × 10−2 for rotavirus. The general quantitative risk assessment undertaken in this study suggests that constant monitoring of household container-stored water supplies is vital as it would assist in early detection of microbial pathogens. Moreover, it will also allow the prompt action to be taken for the protection of public health, particularly for immunocompromised individuals and children who are prone to higher risk of infections.

The complex nature of household water supply: an evidence-based assessment of urban water access in Southwest Nigeria

Abstract Access to domestic water supply is a big challenge for many households in developing countries, as a large number of households do not have access to municipal water sources. The purpose of this study is to investigate the nature of access and characteristics of water sources and their impact on the choice and usage of water by providing empirical and statistical evidence. A survey of 1,300 households was conducted across six major cities in Southwest Nigeria, using structured questionnaires, field surveys, personal interviews, and observations. The data obtained were analysed using SPSS 27 for descriptive statistics and characterised using enhancement-based strategies. The result showed that 5% of respondents had access to pipe water, 66% used private wells and boreholes, and 29% used off-site water sources. The study discovered that 15 different water sources with unique attributes were consumed. The daily consumption ranged between 301 and 361 and 1,153 and 1,421 litres per household (L/hh/d) for those using off-site and on-site water sources, respectively. This study provides new insights with empirical evidence. As such, there is a need to re-evaluate the present water supply policy implementation, funding approach, and level of coverage. Additional policies that support and fund decentralised water projects, without compromising on water quality, should be provided, since they are more accessible to the people.

HydroZen: The smart water tank system with advanced monitoring and automated refilling

The HydroZen smart water tank system is a modern solution for managing water supply in households and other smallscale settings. It uses sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) technology to monitor the water level and quality in real time and provides users with up-to-date information through a user-friendly mobile application. The system also incorporates automated refilling and flushing processes to ensure that the water remains at an acceptable level and quality. With its simple installation and user-friendly interface, the HydroZen smart water tank system offers an efficient and convenient way to manage water supply and promote responsible water usage.

Izazovi u snabdevanju vodom, sanitaciji i higijeni u okviru agende održivog razvoja do 2030. u Republici Srbiji

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a global strategic framework of seventeen goals to be achieved within a decade. The recent Progress Report shows that Serbia made steps toward reaching targets within the sustainable development goal (SDG) 6 related to the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. While 82% of the population in urban areas has access to safe drinking water, the country needs to regulate water supply systems and individual water sources in rural areas. Hygienically correct water is a prerequisite for preventing the transmission of fecal-oral diseases. The biggest challenge under the SDG 6 is safe sanitation management, available to 18% of the population. A national on-site study in Serbia identified issues with the containment, emptying, transport, and final disposal of excreta. The key actions must be connecting households to public sewers, regulating management of septic tanks, and investing in environmentally safe wastewater treatment plants. The Progress Report claims that 98% of the population has access to hand-washing facilities with soap and water within the household. This highlights the importance of providing hygienically correct water not only for drinking and sanitation, but for personal hygiene, hand washing, laundry, cleaning, and other household needs. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are of prime importance in public institutions. Several studies in Serbia reported inadequate sanitary-hygienic conditions in schools and healthcare facilities in rural areas. WASH in schools and healthcare facilities not only contributes to reducing the spread of infectious diseases but also supports the healthy habits of pupils and patients and promotes the good health of the entire population. We propose the public health system ensure long-term supervision over water supply, sanitation services, and hygiene in households, schools, and healthcare facilities through continuous monitoring programs in line with the indicators and targets of the 2030 Agenda.

ВОПРОСЫ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ВОДНЫМИ РЕСУРСАМИ БАССЕЙНА РЕКИ ЛАМ ВО ВЬЕТНАМЕ

The purpose of the work is to analyze the problems and prospects of water management in the Lam River basin (Vietnam), as well as their impact on water use conditions in the provinces – Nge An and Ha Tinh. The analysis takes into account the development of irrigation, hydropower and the main trends in water management. The efficiency of water use in the Lam River basin was assessed, planning, management structure and sources of financing for water management were analyzed, as well as prospects for the development of hydropower and irrigated agriculture were considered. Up-to-date data has been collected, and the structure of water use for the river basin of the Lam River has been compiled. Recommendations on planning and management of water resources have been developed. The research applied a comprehensive integrated approach, the method of system analysis and the provisions of the concept of sustainable development, methods of expert assessments. The analysis of water use, taking into account the state of hydro-reclamation systems operation in the Lam River basin, showed that the operational capacity of irrigation facilities does not meet the requirements; water loss during irrigation is about 30%, in the household water supply losses are 25.5%. There is no master plan for the use of water sources; there is no plan and financing to replace old reservoirs and ponds for irrigation purposes. The survey of experts and the public also revealed the problem of insufficient accumulation and exchange of relevant information on the river. Management, operation and use, as well as planning of water resources in the Lam River basin have made positive changes, having a certain impact on the community. However, in order to successfully implement the transformation of water resources management from traditional to integrated, it is required that the communities in the basin overcome the shortcomings in the exploitation and use of water resources.

About adjustment of requirements to zones of sanitary protection of sources of the centralized economic and drinking water supply of the population

Introduction. A review of the judicial practice of securing land use rights on the territory of sanitary protection zones (SPZ) of sources of centralized household drinking water supply of the population, a comparative analysis of Russian and foreign approaches to the legal regulation of sanitary protection of sources of centralized household drinking water supply (starting now - SPZ). The computational methods for assessing the spread of pollutants and determining the size of the boundaries of the 2 nd zone of the WSS for water sources, analysis of the degree of protection of aquifers of drinking water supply sources, which can become an alternative to expensive measures to prohibit economic activities in the territory of the SPZ, have been updated. The data on the water pollution of the sources of the centralized drinking water supply of the population of the Russian Federation, the Moscow River, on the effect of surface runoff polluted with persistent organic substances on the sanitary state of surface waters are presented. Material and methods. Methods of the survey, comparative analysis were applied to assess the legal regulation of sanitary protection of sources of centralized drinking water supply to the population in urbanized areas, hygienic assessment of water pollution, correlation and regression analysis. Results. The data of field studies of surface water bodies and groundwater in the Russian Federation indicate the low efficiency of wastewater treatment to ensure water quality safety in the sources of centralized drinking water supply to the population. On the one hand, the low efficiency of groundwater protection and the ability to protect groundwater due to natural conditions are shown. Judicial practice confirms the need to establish the security of a water supply source from wastewater when justifying health hazards and violations of current regulations. Conclusion. The analysis of the legal regulation of the protection of sources of centralized economic water supply to the population and treatment, wastewater disposal showed that the issues of the legal status of the territory of the SPZ of water sources are not developed. The need to standardize approaches to the organization of SPZ and the methods used to ensure the protection of sources of centralized drinking water supply to the population was not evaluated.

Point‐of‐entry water filter for removal of per‐ and poly‐fluoroalkyl substances and precursors

AbstractTechnologies for per‐ and poly‐fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) removal at a small scale suitable for point‐of‐entry (POE) treatment systems for household or business water supply are not well‐established. In the current study, a POE filter was tested for the removal of PFAS and precursors in groundwater contaminated with aqueous film‐forming foam. Long‐chain PFAS were more effectively removed than short‐chain PFAS. Total oxidizable precursor assays showed that precursors of short‐chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) broke through the filter earlier than routinely measured PFCAs and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids. The dissolved organic carbon removal trend was similar to that of PFAS and precursors. Overall, the POE filter achieved good long‐term removal (up to 7 months household equivalent) of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and Australian Drinking Water Guidelines‐regulated PFAS. This study provides benchmark data for the long‐term removal of precursors and PFAS using POE treatment systems for household or business water supply impacted by PFAS‐contaminated water.

The effect of information on preferences for improved household water supply in Indonesia and Nepal

ABSTRACT Information-based interventions are increasingly used to influence preferences or behaviour. Although information does not directly influence behaviour, it is still commonly used because it is inexpensive and provides immediate impacts. The objective of this study is to compare the impacts of information provision on households’ stated preferences for improved water supply systems in Surabaya, Indonesia, and Kathmandu, Nepal. Surabaya and Kathmandu face different challenges in household water supply services. Stated preferences were elicited by using randomized conjoint analysis. In addition to the preference elicitation, the impacts of information on the willingness to pay were also estimated.

Relationship between water and sanitation and maternal health: Evidence from Indonesia

• The effects of unsafe water and sanitation on maternal and newborn health has been largely ignored. • Our findings support the role of poor hygiene and fecal disposal in maternal health. • Access to at least basic sanitation at home substantially decreases overall risk during pregnancy and birth. • No access to at least basic sanitation at home is a strong determinant of fever/infection during delivery. • Access to at least basic water has no systematic association with maternal and newborn outcomes. Poor household water supply and sanitation can affect maternal and newborn health outcomes through several pathways, including the quality of drinking water consumed by pregnant woman and exposure to harmful fecal pathogens in the environment due to poor quality sanitation. Using data on 14,098 pregnancies across four rounds of the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS), we investigate the relationship between water and sanitation and outcomes along the course of a pregnancy - health and complications during pregnancy, probability of a miscarriage, complications during child birth, probability of live birth, and neonatal outcomes including birth weight and newborn survival rates. After controlling for confounding factors, we find that access to at least basic household sanitation is strongly associated with substantially decreased overall risk during pregnancy and birth. Whether or not a household has access to at least basic sanitation is strongly significantly associated with a lower probability of miscarriage and is a strong predictor of high fever during labor (an indicator of infection). We find no systematic association between household access to basic water and maternal and newborn outcomes. We also find no evidence of herd protection resulting from high levels of sanitation within the community.

Access to Pipe-Born Water Evaluation in Akwanga Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Water is an essential element of the natural resource of the earth that sustains all living creatures on the planet, it`s fundamental importance can never be overemphasized. This study evaluates access to pipe-born water in Akwanga Local Government Area, Nasarawa State. The study identifies the sources of household water supply and identifies the presence of pipelines facilities in each household, to determine if the quantity of pipe water supply meets demands, also assesses the effects of the quantity of water supply on the socioeconomic activity of householders. This study adopted a survey research design. A total of 300 questionnaires were administered to households. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select the respondents. Five wards were selected within the study area, while 60 copies of questionnaires were distributed in each of the selected wards. Data were analyzed and presented using a descriptive form of statistics. The study revealed that most of the pipelines meant for the supply of water were old and inefficient. Therefore, no significant coverage (60%) of pipeline facilities in the study area. Pipe-borne water supply in the study area is not sufficient to meet the demands of the residents due to irregularity in the flow of water; 4.2% of these taps run every day, 8.8% of these taps run once a week, 11.7% of these taps run once in 3 days, 18.4% of these taps run once a year, 22.2% of these run once a month, while 37.7% water used for cooking, washing, drinking and sanitary purposes were mostly sourced from alternative sources that are energy and time consuming and costly to obtain. The average water consumed per person per day in the study area was 37.76 litres which are below the minimum absolute daily water needed 50 litres per person per day as stated by UNDP. Consequently, pipe-borne water supply in the study area does not have any significant impact on the socio-economic activities of residents as people still spent the better part of their time sourcing for water. This study, therefore, recommends that there should be constant monitoring of population growth rate and repairs of damaged pipes and taps in the study area.

Foreign legislation in the field of drinking groundwater protection (literature review)

The need to protect underground sources of drinking and household water supply. Many reasons, including climatic changes, an increase in anthropogenic pressure, and an increase in the need for drinking water, dictate the need to protect underground sources of drinking and domestic water supply. The USSR was the pioneer in the field of drinking water protection in the world. Already in 1956, USSR put an instruction on the establishment of sanitary protection zones (SPZ) into effect. The United States took the first steps in resolving this issue only seven years later. Along with Soviet developments, the USA and German guidelines are still fundamental and contain fundamental recommendations for groundwater protection. The requirements related to the protection of water intakes in the legislative acts of various states have been implemented at the international level (Directive 2000/60 / EU, Directive 2006/118 / EU), nationally (Australian National Strategy, USA Safe Drinking Water Law, PRC Law on Drinking Water Pollution Prevention and Control) and Local Levels (New Jersey safeguard zone (SGZ) Guidelines). Among the standard features is the allocation of belts in the S with different permitted use regimes: belt I (strict regime) - 10-50 m, belt II -50 days -10 years, belt III - the entire catchment area. Conclusions. Despite the fact that each country uses different approaches to protecting groundwater, in general, there is a similarity in the establishment and organization of SGZ for groundwater intakes, in which certain activities are prohibited or restricted. In the Russian Federation, it seems important to formalize the results of scientific research and existing experience in the protection of underground sources of drinking water supply in the form of Guidelines to allow ensuring optimal management of drinking water resources and preserve the quality of drinking water, to guarantee their availability in the future.