Household Water Supply Research Articles

Revisiting the self‐supply model: A foundational, not a complimentary model for water supply in rural households

AbstractIn this opinion article, we propose that self‐supply, as a model for household‐managed water supply in rural areas, is the foundational model for water supply in rural households. Any other model is only complementary while it lasts. Therefore, self‐supply needs more emphasis in research and intentional exposure and support in practice. This is underscored by the fact that despite the use of taxes, transfers, and tariffs that fund other service models, major water service gaps still exist in rural households forcing them to invest directly in self‐supply. Over 2.2 billion people globally still lack access to safe water. Our argument is not that other models such as communal or government models are irrelevant; rather, it is that self‐supply is the foundational and often preferred model for rural households due to reliability, predictability, control, and flexibility. Yet it is overlooked often. Therefore, we call for investing in research informing self‐supply policy, practice, and funding especially where it links with other models to be prioritized. This will likely accelerate the achievement of SDG 6.

Implication of Urban Domestic Water Distribution on Human Health in Machakos Central Ward, Machakos County

The world's water resources are running out, and this situation is made worse by how quickly people are populating new areas, particularly in developing nations. This has highlighted the critical requirement for prepared action to manage water resources for sustainable development efficiently. Increasing water demands due to climate change, global pressures from urbanization, the already-existing unsustainable variables, and challenges of water supply systems in urban centres pose a challenge in managing water resource effectively. The purpose of the study was to investigate the implication of urban domestic water supply on human health in Machakos Central Ward, Machakos County. Using a Survey Research Design (SRD) both primary and secondary data was collected by use of questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, photography, use of GIS, authors’ observation, and the review of relevant literature in order to (1) document household water supply, (2) determine water quality for the identified categories of households and domestic water supply systems, and (3) Determine how the distribution and coverage of domestic water in a household or home affects the prevalence of water-borne illnesses. The target population was 8,331 households, from which a sample size of 381 respondents was selected. These included households, water vendors and key informants from the Machakos Water and Sewerage Company. Questionnaires (for households and vendors), interview schedules (for water officers and chiefs) and observation schedules were used as instruments for data collection. Data was analysed using Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The results revealed that the major factors attributed to lower accessibility are shortage of water, high cost of piped water connection, poor coordination, and participation of stakeholders, repairing of old and broken pipes. As a result, nearly half of the dwellers prefer to use alternative sources, exposing them to the risks of water-born diseases

Evaluating the Effects of Polyphosphate Cartridge at Point-of-Entry on Scaling and Corrosion Indices of Household Water

Scaling and corrosion are significant issues in water distribution systems that can lead to economic, aesthetic, and health concerns. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a point-of-entry (POE) polyphosphate cartridge on scaling and corrosion indices (Langelier Saturation Index [LSI], Ryznar Stability Index [RSI], Puckorius Scaling Index [PSI] and Aggressive Index [AI]), as well as the quality of water treated with household water treatment systems. In this study, a POE polyphosphate cartridge was directly connected to municipal water to adjust water stability and prevent scaling and corrosion. Parameters were tested in water samples before and after filtration with the POE polyphosphate cartridge. Spearman’s correlation analysis was conducted to determine any monotonic relationship between the variables using SPSS. It was observed that water exhibited scaling properties at flow rates of 0.180, 0.252, and 0.522 L/min based on the LSI, while in other cases, it showed corrosion properties. Additionally, the results of the Spearman analysis indicated a strong positive correlation (r=0.74) between RSI and PSI and a strong negative correlation (r=-0.64) between LSI and RSI in the outlet water from the POE polyphosphate cartridge. The results indicated that more precise control of key quality parameters for scaling and corrosion of water is essential. Significant adjustments must be implemented to prevent corrosion of facilities and valves when utilizing a POE polyphosphate cartridge in household water systems. Moreover, due to the fluctuations in household water consumption, the use of inline POE polyphosphate cartridges may not ensure water stability in the household water supply system.

GOVERNANCE AND WATER LANDSCAPE IN KHULNA CITY: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE DIRECTION

This paper examines the water landscape in Khulna City from two perspectives: household water supply and the importance of surface water in the city’s ecology. The authors seek to explore whether the current water supply system can achieve goal 6.1 of the Sustainable Development Goals (Universal and Equitable access to safe and affordable water for all), and the drivers of surface water deterioration and the city’s ecological changes. Both the primary and secondary materials have been consulted. Analysis of water infrastructure and water body encroachments have been explored using remote sensing and GIS tools. Investigation of the water supply networks in Khulna city shows a clear geographical division, where the planned residential and affluent areas enjoy most of the water network coverage. Affluent areas with piped networks and other sources consumed much more water than other parts of the city. Map-based and observational analysis of the Mayur River and Nirala Canal asserts that the water bodies have been encroached severely. About 65% of the total area of the Nirala canal has been encroached on by the government as well as private organizations and individuals. Businesses on and around the Mayur River are booming. As a result, rivers and canals are unable to maintain water flows resulting in higher intensity of water logging and other ecological disruptions. Several recommendations including supply-based water management, hierarchical water tariffs, increasing water supply coverage, the introduction of non-conflicting activities around water bodies and inter-organizational collaboration have been proposed to make the city resilient against the adverse impacts of climate and man-made disruptions.

Dominant conservation parameters to control environmental destruction of oxbow lake in Kapuas River Basin, Indonesia

Global climate change has significantly impacted the ecosystem of a specific aquatic region, including its lake area. Lakes provide immense benefits in efforts to meet various needs and enhance community well-being. These include the provision of raw water for clean drinking, household and urban water supply, industry, supplemental irrigation for agriculture, hydroelectric power generation, and various other purposes. However, fluctuations in river water availability trigger adjustments in both the river flow patterns and their inherent characteristics. These modifications in land features and ecosystems have consequently brought the morphological transformations in rivers throughout the adjacent region. The characteristics and functions of oxbow lakes must be preserved, and conservation efforts must be undertaken. To maintain their functionality, it is essential to conduct a study to determine the dominant parameters that influence the characteristics of oxbow lakes. This study aims to identify the primary parameters for conservation efforts in oxbow lakes. Based on a field survey of physical conditions, most oxbow lakes exhibit suboptimal conditions, as nearly all water storage areas are already overgrown with wild vegetation and possess high sediment levels. It is essential to continuously monitor several parameters to maintain the performance of oxbow lakes. The results of this research show that the dominant parameters for the oxbow lake in west Kalimantan are divided into 3 (three) aspects: reservoir, oxbow lake embankment structure, and oxbow lake embankment crest.

An Optimized Method for Evaluating the Preparation of High-Quality Fuel from Various Types of Biomass through Torrefaction.

The pretreatment for torrefaction impacts the performance of biomass fuels and operational costs. Given their diversity, it is crucial to determine the optimal torrefaction conditions for different types of biomass. In this study, three typical solid biofuels, corn stover (CS), agaric fungus bran (AFB), and spent coffee grounds (SCGs), were prepared using fluidized bed torrefaction. The thermal stability of different fuels was extensively discussed and a novel comprehensive fuel index, "displacement level", was analyzed. The functional groups, pore structures, and microstructural differences between the three raw materials and the optimally torrefied biochar were thoroughly characterized. Finally, the biomass fuel consumption for household heating and water supply was calculated. The results showed that the optimal torrefaction temperatures for CS, AFB, and SCGs were 240, 280, and 280 °C, respectively, with comprehensive quality rankings of the optimal torrefied biochar of AFB (260) > SCG (252) > CS (248). Additionally, the economic costs of the optimally torrefied biochar were reduced by 7.03-19.32%. The results indicated that the displacement level is an index universally applicable to the preparation of solid fuels through biomass torrefaction. AFB is the most suitable solid fuel to be upgraded through torrefaction and has the potential to replace coal.

Hygienic efficiency of ultraviolet disinfection of water in centralized drinking and household water supply systems (systematic review)

Introduction. Drinking water supplied to the population must be safe in epidemic terms. However, some viruses and parasites are resistant to the disinfecting effect of traditionally used agents for water treatment. The use of UV irradiation ensures the microbiological safety of water, but there are factors affecting its effectiveness. 
 The purpose of the review was to systematize scientific data on the effectiveness of the use of UV irradiation in relation to drinking water.
 Materials and methods. The search for scientific publications was carried out using literature databases MedLine/PubMed, Scopus, and Science Direct. The total number of publications was one thousand six hundred forty-six. The criteria for including the report in the systematic review were: publications in Russian or English with an available full-text version; samples for the study are water from centralized water supply systems or specially prepared microorganisms; any type of research evaluating the effectiveness of a wide range of doses of UV irradiation against microorganisms.
 Results of the analysis of publications. A systematic review included 17 reports about the effect of UV irradiation on bacteria and viruses. The subject of several studies was the resistance of protozoan cysts and helminth eggs to different doses of UV irradiation. According to the results presented in the publication, pathogenic viruses and bacteria, giardia cysts possess of the least resistance to UV irradiation (100% inactivation). 4 log-inactivation was established for Mycobacteia. E. coli and coliphages demonstrate a wide range of indicators of the resistance to ultraviolet radiation due to the diversity of the studied strains. 
 Conclusion. UV disinfection should be used as an additional method in combination with traditional reagents methods of water treatment. It is necessary to study the effect of UV irradiation on helminth eggs and protozoan cysts.

Research on a Novel Terminal Water Supply System Based on the Diversion Process

The pipeline direct drinking water system (PDDWS) has emerged to ensure the quality of direct drinking water. Nevertheless, the existing literature suggests that the PDDWS suffers from inherent structural technological deficiencies, and various internal and external factors hinder its reliability, which raise concerns about the scientific and rational basis of the PDDWS. To address these issues, a new-type terminal differentiated water system (TDWS) is proposed to establish an efficient and health-oriented household water supply system. A water purifier is directly installed at the user’s terminal, and, due to its diversion process, differentiated water is provided, including direct drinking water, clean water and flushing water. Direct drinking water can be produced on demand, without secondary contamination. Clean water is also not stored, thus preventing microbial growth and ensuring superior water quality compared to tap water, suitable for kitchen usage. Flushing water is mixed with tap water for laundry, bathing and toilet flushing. Engineering verification has demonstrated that the quality of the direct drinking water and the clean water exceeds national standards. With the diversion process, the TDWS exhibits benefits related to health, the economy, applicability and environmental friendliness, and it can serve as a supplement and innovation for the PDDWS.

Recombinant Organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA) enzyme-carbon quantum dot (CQDs)-immobilized thin film biosensors for the specific detection of Ethyl Paraoxon and Methyl Parathion in water resources

Organophosphates pesticide (OP) toxicity through water resources is a large concern globally among all the emerging pollutants. Detection of OPs is a challenge which needs to be addressed considering the hazardous effects on the health of human beings. In the current research thin film biosensors of recombinant, Organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA) enzyme along with carbon quantum dots (CQDs) immobilized in thin films were developed. OPAA-CQDs thin film biosensors were used for the specific detection of two OPs Ethyl Paraoxon (EP) and Methyl Parathion (MP) in river water and household water supply. Recombinant OPAA enzyme was expressed in E. Coli, purified and immobilized on the CQD containing chitosan thin films. The CQDs used for this purpose were developed by a one-pot hydrothermal method from phthalic acid and Tri ethylene diamine. The properties of CQDs, OPAA and thin films were characterized using techniques like XPS, TEM, XRD, enzyme activity and CLSM measurements. Biosensing studies of EP and MP were performed by taking fluorescence measurements using a fiber optic spectrometer. The analytical parameters of biosensing were compared against an estimation carried out using the HPLC method. The biosensing performance indicates that the OPAA-CQDs thin film-based biosensors were able to detect both EP and MP in a range of 0–100 μM having a detection limit of 0.18 ppm/0.69 ppm for EP/MP, respectively with a response time of 5 min. The accuracy of estimation of EP/MP when spiked in water resources lie in the range of ∼100–102% which clearly indicates the OPAA-CQD based thin film biosensors can function as a point-of-use method for the detection of OP pesticides in complex water resources.

Safely managed sanitation practice and childhood stunting among under five years old children in Myanmar.

In 2020, 149 million children under the age of five were estimated to be stunted globally. Around half of deaths among children under 5 years of age are related to under-nutrition. Objective of this study is to determine the association between safely managed sanitation and childhood stunting among under-five years old children in Myanmar. This cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in 16 townships across three regions and five states in Myanmar. Multiple logistic regressions analysis was performed to determine the associations. This study found that 327 (27.09%) under-five children were stunted among a total of 1207 children in Myanmar. Children with unsafely managed sanitation were 2.88 times more likely to be stunting compared with children who access to safely managed sanitation services (AOR = 2.88, 95% CI: 2.16 to 3.85; p-value <0.01). Other associated factors for childhood stunting were needs 1-15 minutes for water collection (AOR = 2.07, 95% CI: 1.46 to 2.94; p-value <0.01), 15-60 minutes for water collection times (AOR = 1.55, 95% CI: 1.08 to 2.23; p-value 0.02), improper waste water disposal (AOR = 1.99, 95% CI: 1.47 to 2.70; p-value <0.01), boys children (AOR = 4.49, 95% CI: 3.30 to 6.12; p-value <0.01), did not take vitamin A supplements(AOR = 1.64, 95% CI: 1.22 to 2.20; p-value <0.01), mothers height shorter than 153.4cm (AOR = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.45 to 2.58; p-value <0.01), and the lower minimal diet diversity (AOR = 1.47, 95% CI: 1.08 to 2.01; p-value 0.02). More access to safely managed sanitation facilities, technical sharing for proper waste water disposal, promoting household water supply system, health promotion for children's diet eating pattern, and regular support for Vitamin A supplementation are critical to reduce childhood stunting among children under the age of five in Myanmar.

BurkHostGEN: a study protocol for evaluating variations in the Burkholderia pseudomallei and host genomes associated with melioidosis infection.

Melioidosis is a frequently fatal disease caused by an environmental bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei. The disease is prevalent in northeast Thailand, particularly among rice field farmers who are at risk of bacterial exposure through contact with contaminated soil and water. However, not all exposure results in disease, and infection can manifest diverse outcomes. We postulate that genetic factors, whether from the bacterium, the host or the combination of both, may influence disease outcomes. To address this hypothesis, we aim to collect, sequence, and analyse genetic data from melioidosis patients and controls, along with isolates of B. pseudomallei obtained from patients. Additionally, we will study the metagenomics of the household water supply for both patients and controls, including the presence of B. pseudomallei. BurkHostGEN is an ongoing observational study being conducted at Sunpasitthiprasong Hospital, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand. We are obtaining consent from 600 melioidosis patients and 700 controls, spanning both sexes, to collect 1 mL of blood for host DNA analysis, 3 mL of blood for RNA analysis, as well as 5 L of household water supply for metagenomic analysis. Additionally, we are isolating B. pseudomallei from the melioidosis patients to obtain bacterial DNA. This comprehensive approach will allow us to identify B. pseudomallei and their paired host genetic factors associated with disease acquisition and severity. Ethical approvals have been obtained for BurkHostGEN. Host and bacterial genetic data will be uploaded to European Genome-Phenome Archive (EGA) and European Nucleotide Archive (ENA), respectively. BurkHostGEN holds the potential to discover bacterial and host genetic factors associated with melioidosis infection and severity of illness. It can also support various study designs, including biomarker validation, disease pathogenesis, and epidemiological analysis not only for melioidosis but also for other infectious diseases.

Thousands of domestic and public supply wells face failure despite groundwater sustainability reform in California’s Central Valley

Across the world, declining groundwater levels cause wells to run dry, increase water and food insecurity, and often acutely impact groundwater-dependent communities. Despite the ubiquity and severity of these impacts, groundwater research has primarily focused on economic policy instruments for sustainable management or the quantification of groundwater depletion, rather than assessing the impacts of management decisions. In particular, how definitions of groundwater sustainability shape the fate of resource users remains unexplored. Here, we examine one of the world’s largest-scale environmental sustainability reforms, the California Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA), and estimate the impact of sustainability definitions proposed in groundwater sustainability plans (GSPs) on well failure. We show that locally-proposed sustainability criteria are consistent with business as usual groundwater level decline, and if reached, could impact over 9000 domestic wells and around 1000 public supply wells. These findings highlight the necessity of careful and critical evaluation of locally-developed sustainability definitions and their implementation to prevent detrimental impacts, such as threats to household and municipal water supply.

BurkHostGEN: a study protocol for evaluating variations in the Burkholderia pseudomallei and host genomes associated with melioidosis infection

Background: Melioidosis is a frequently fatal disease caused by an environmental bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei. The disease is prevalent in northeast Thailand, particularly among rice field farmers who are at risk of bacterial exposure through contact with contaminated soil and water. However, not all exposure results in disease, and infection can have different infection outcomes. Our hypothesis is that the acquisition and outcomes of melioidosis may be influenced by genetic factors of the bacterium, the host, or a combination of both. To address this hypothesis, we aim to collect, sequence, and analyse genetic data from melioidosis patients and controls, along with isolates of B. pseudomallei obtained from patients. Additionally, we will study the metagenomics of the household water supply for both patients and controls, including the presence of B. pseudomallei. Methods: BurkHostGEN is an ongoing observational study being conducted at Sunpasitthiprasong Hospital, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand. Weare obtaining consent from 600 melioidosis patients and 700 controls, spanning both sexes, to collect 1 mL of blood for host DNA analysis, 3 mL of blood for RNA analysis, as well as 5 L of household water supply for metagenomic analysis. Additionally, we are isolating B. pseudomallei from the melioidosis patients to obtain bacterial DNA. This comprehensive approach will allow us to identify B. pseudomallei and their paired host genetic factors associated with disease acquisition and severity. Ethical approvals have been obtained for BurkHostGEN. Host and bacterial genetic data will be uploaded to European Genome-Phenome Archive (EGA) and European Nucleotide Archive (ENA), respectively. Conclusions: BurkHostGEN holds the potential to discover bacterial and host genetic factors associated with melioidosis infection and severity of illness. It can also support various study designs, including biomarker validation, disease pathogenesis, and epidemiological analysis not only for melioidosis but also for other infectious diseases.

Epidemiology of soil-transmitted helminths using quantitative PCR and risk factors for hookworm and Necator americanus infection in school children in Dak Lak province, Vietnam

BackgroundSoil-transmitted helminth (STH) infection is driven by a complex interaction of demographic, socioeconomic and behavioural factors, including those related to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). Epidemiological studies that measure both infection and potential risk factors associated with infection help to understand the drivers of transmission in a population and therefore can provide information to optimise STH control programmes.MethodsDuring October and November 2019, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of the prevalence and intensity of STH infection and associated risk factors among 7710 primary-school-age children from 64 primary schools across 13 districts in Dak Lak province, Vietnam. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to detect and quantify STH infections.ResultsThe predominant STH species was the hookworm Necator americanus (overall cluster-adjusted prevalence of 13.7%), and its prevalence was heterogeneously distributed across surveyed schools (0% to 56.3%). All other STH species had a prevalence of less than 1%. Using mixed-effects logistic regression, we found that the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) was significantly higher for both infection and moderate-to-heavy-intensity infection with N. americanus among children from multiple ethnic minority groups, compared to children from the majority group (Kinh). Adjusted odds of infection with N. americanus were also higher in children who reported practising open defecation at school (aOR 1.42, 95% CI 1.05, 1.93, P = 0.02) and in those who had an unimproved household water supply (aOR 1.28, 95% CI 1.04, 1.57, P = 0.02). Conversely, children with a flushing household toilet had a reduced risk of infection (aOR 0.58, 95% CI 0.47, 0.70, P < 0.01), as did those whose primary female carer attended secondary (aOR 0.65, 95% CI 0.51, 0.84, P < 0.01) or tertiary education (aOR 0.39, 95% CI 0.24, 0.63, P < 0.01).ConclusionsThis study is the largest reported prevalence survey of STH infections conducted using qPCR as a diagnostic technique. The findings of higher adjusted odds of infection amongst ethnic minority children highlight that STH control programmes may not be reaching certain population groups and that additional culturally appropriate approaches may be required. Additionally, the associations between specific WASH factors and infection indicate potential programmatic targets to complement preventive chemotherapy programmes.Graphical

Water quality in rural Greenland - acceptability and safety

The low proportion of households with piped drinking water in Greenlandic settlements – and elsewhere in the Arctic, leads to improvised methods of household water storage and water saving practices that could present a risk for public health.This interview-based study investigated the perceptions of safety and acceptability of the water supply in rural Greenlandic households. The bacterial quality of the water distributed by the public supply before and after storage in the homes, of alternative water sourced from nature by the users themselves, and of shared handwash basins used in un-piped homes, was analyzed.The treated water distributed by the rural Greenlandic water supply was acceptable to most users, although half of them expressed concerns about its quality, and distrusted the state of the infrastructure delivering piped water. For drinking, most respondents preferred untreated water from nature, but a majority used mainly piped water for practical reasons of access. The microbial quality of the public water supply met legislative requirements in most cases, but was found to deteriorate during both distribution to some taps, and storage in the homes, which constitutes a challenge to the reliable provision of safe water to users. Water from alternative sources showed slightly higher heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) than piped water, but no Escherichia coli. As for washbasins, they were found to have high levels of contamination in all three bacterial parameters investigated (HPC, coliforms and E. coli), indicating a possible transmission route for pathogens.In conclusion, while the quality of treated water was overall good at distribution, the water saving and storage practices developed to compensate for the lack of piping may threaten public health. Alternative water sources are culturally important and trusted by users, although the possible impact of changes in climate and land use on the reliability of their quality is unknown.

The Protective Effect of Breastfeeding on Dental Fluorosis Among Children in Rural Fluoride-Endemic Areas.

Background: Living in fluoride-endemic areas and the inevitable use of groundwater for consumption have imposed children at high risk of dental fluorosis. To mitigate exposure to excessive fluoride at age of developing dentition, breastfeeding might serve as a natural public health intervention against dental fluorosis in that socially disadvantaged context. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the preventive effect of breastfeeding against dental fluorosis in children living in fluoride-endemic areas in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand. Evaluation of the association through several epidemiological models depicted by a directed acyclic graph (DAG) was undertaken. Methods: A case-control study of 127 cases of dental fluorosis and 85 controls was conducted. Independent factor of breastfeeding, along with other past exposure variables, were traced backwardly since infancy by caregiver history taking. Fluoride concentrations in groundwater utilized for household supply matching to residence and number of years by age of each child were collected from 2008 to 2015. Multivariable Poisson regression with robust standard errors was sequentially executed to estimate prevalence ratio (PR) according to models in DAG. Results: Breastfeeding was significantly higher (95.3%) among controls compared to cases (84.2%), p = 0.014. Contrastingly, prevalence of using toothpaste larger than pea-sized and having fluoride ≥1.5 ppm in household water supply was higher among cases. Univariable and subsequent five multivariable regression models according to DAG consistently unveiled significant protective effect of breastfeeding on dental fluorosis with PR ranging from 0.66 to 0.75. Conclusions: Breastfeeding for at least 6 months had preventive effect against dental fluorosis among children living in fluoride-endemic areas.

Rationale for alternative water sources for mining regions with high environmental footprint on the example of Levikha village of the Sverdlovsk region

Introduction. Mine drainage has always been one of the main threats to the hydrosphere of mining areas, both during and after active mining. The most common method of mine water neutralization is associated with the slaked lime. On the abandoned Levikha copper-sulphide mine territory (Sverdlovsk region), acid mine drainage discharge reaches 3,000 m³/day. To neutralize acid waters, more than 400 m³/day of water with a neutral pH is required (to produce the slaked lime). Due to the worn out state of water pipe from the river Tagil, heavy losses, and frequent accidents, the neutralization station receives no more than half of the required amount of water. As a result, the neutralization technology is violated, acid mine drainage is not properly cleaned, the regulatory requirements for wastewater are not achieved, and sulfate waters with increased mineralization and metal concentrations are discharged into the river Tagil. Research objective is to substantiate the possibility of finding sources of drinking, household and process water supply for Levikha village and acid mine drainage neutralization stations by applying groundwater. Methods of research include a comprehensive approach containing research results analysis and field and laboratory research data processing. Results and discussion. Promising areas have been identified representing private catchment areas of potential water intakes with the most favorable conditions for underground runoff. A combination of the following factors was the criterion for promising areas and load points: favorable geological and tectonic conditions (the presence of tectonic faults); groundwater inflow testing results (relatively high specific flow rates of wells); geomorphological position (confinement to low relief areas, location near surface sources of groundwater recharge); hydrochemical sampling data (satisfactory chemical composition of groundwater); sanitary and hygienic situation (absence of potential sources of pollution in the local catchment area). Conclusions. The total resources of the five promising sites are 1,340 m3 /day, including 282 m3 /day for drinking purposes. Exploration and development of promising areas no. II (favorable geological and tectonic conditions within it are confirmed by the groundwater inflow testing results) and no. III (favorable sanitary and hygienic conditions) seem to be the most reasonable. These sites might cover half of the village water needs for drinking and household purposes.

Understanding perceived climate risks to household water supply and their implications for adaptation: evidence from California

Rapid adaptation is necessary to maintain, let alone expand, access to reliable, safe drinking water in the face of climate change. Existing research focuses largely on the role, priorities, and incentives of local managers to pursue adaptation strategies while mostly neglecting the role of the broader public, despite the strong public support required to fund and implement many climate adaptation plans. In this paper, we interrogate the relationship between personal experiences of household water supply impacts from extreme weather events and hazard exposure with individual concern about future supply reliability among a statewide representative sample of California households. We find that more than one-third of Californians report experiencing impacts of climate change on their household water supplies and show that these reported impacts differently influence residents’ concern about future water supply reliability, depending on the type of event experienced. In contrast, residents’ concern about future water supplies is not significantly associated with hazard exposure. These findings emphasize the importance of local managers’ attending to not only how climate change is projected to affect their water resources, but how, and whether, residents perceive these risks. The critical role of personal experience in increasing concern highlights that post-extreme events with water supply impacts may offer a critical window to advance solutions. Managers should not assume, however, that all extreme events will promote concern in the same way or to the same degree.

Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Household Water Supply: A Case Study Considering Consumption Patterns within a Life-Cycle Perspective

Household water supply can cause different environmental impacts associated with the consumption of energy and materials, the generation of waste, and other inputs and outputs necessary to treat and distribute water. These impacts depend on the population’s consumption patterns, due to the potential availability of different water sources. In this work, the environmental impacts of water supply were evaluated from a production-consumption perspective, integrating life cycle assessment (LCA) and a survey for determining the end uses and sources of water at household level. The proposed method was applied in the city of Chillán (Chile), where three main sources exist: tap, bottled, and well water. Two household profiles were evaluated, differentiated by the presence of wells within the household. The results show that bottled water generates impacts up to three orders of magnitude greater than the other sources. Although it is the source with the lowest volumetric contribution (&lt;1%), it accounts for 39–92% of the household impacts. Households with well access present greater per capita consumption of water, mainly associated with outdoor activities, but the environmental impacts are similar between profiles. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of integrating a consumption perspective into LCA studies, generating better information for decision-making.

Escherichia coli Contamination of Water for Human Consumption and Its Associated Factors in Peru: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The objective of the study was to determine the factors associated with the presence of Escherichia coli contamination in water supplies for human consumption in Peru. A secondary analysis of the Food and Nutrition Surveillance by Life Stages survey (VIANEV) of 2017-2018 was performed. The presence of E. coli contamination in the water samples for human consumption of the households evaluated was defined as a dependent variable. A supply was considered contaminated when there was at least 1 colony-forming unit of E. coli in 100 mL of water for human consumption. Data from 886 participants were analyzed. It was found that 25.2% of household water supply sources for human consumption had E. coli at the time of sampling. Water reservoirs such as buckets or other containers (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR]: 1.15; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.18-1.93), households belonging to a poor wealth quintile (aPR: 1.82; 95% CI: 1.01-3.25), residing in a rural area (aPR: 1.36; 95% CI: 1.01-1.83), and having a low human development index (aPR: 2.12; 95% CI: 1.15-3.91) were more likely to contain E. coli in water supplies for human consumption. However, households with chlorine concentrations of 0.5 mg/L or more in water (aPR: 0.20; 95% CI: 0.11-0.33) and with household members with a higher education (aPR: 0.67; 95% CI: 0.45-0.99) were less likely to contain E. coli in drinking-water supplies. From 2017 to 2018, one in four Peruvians had contamination by E. coli in the water supply to their homes, which was associated with sociodemographic factors, management, and water treatment.