Water Recovery Research Articles

On-site monitoring of dissolved Sb species in natural waters by an automatic system using flow injection coupled with hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometer

Antimony (Sb) is a toxic and potentially carcinogenic element in the environment. The toxicity of Sb(III) is ten times that of Sb(V). Therefore, on-site monitoring technique for dissolved Sb species is crucial for the study of Sb environmental processes. In this study, an automated, portable, and cost-effective system was developed for field simultaneous analysis of Sb(III) and Sb(III + V) in natural waters. The system comprised a portable atomic fluorescence spectrometer equipped with a built-in electrochemical H2 generator to reduce the consumption of acid/borohydride solution and make the atomizer more stable for on-site analysis. Flow injection technique was also used to achieve on-line pretreatment of water samples, including filtration, acidification, pre-reduction, and hydride generation procedures. Under the optimal conditions, the limits of detection (3σ, n = 11) of the developed method were 0.015 μg/L and the linear ranges were 0.05–5.0 μg/L for both Sb(III) and Sb(III + V). The relative standard deviations (n = 11) of the spiked samples of Sb(V) were 3.2% (0.05 μg/L), 3.3% (0.2 μg/L), and 1.7% (0.5 μg/L), respectively. The spiked recoveries of lake water, treated wastewater, and seawater ranged from 97.0% to 108.5%. The novel system of flow injection coupled with hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometer (FI-HG-AFS) was applied to carry out an 18-h fixed-point monitoring at a secondary settling tank of a wastewater treatment facility in Xiamen University, and a 6-h real-time underway analysis in the surface seawater of Dongshan Bay, China, proving that the system was capable of long-term monitoring in the field.

A diafiltration-nanofiltration-reverse osmosis (DiaNF-RO) process for ion fractionation towards resource recovery in seawater desalination: Comparison with a RO-DiaNF process and effect of NF membrane performance

The diafiltration-nanofiltration-reverse osmosis (DiaNF-RO) is an innovative process that aims to achieve ion fractionation of divalent/monovalent ions, i.e., Mg/Na (SF1Mg-Na), an important step towards resource recovery, while producing clean water in seawater desalination at a reasonable specific energy consumption (SEC). Firstly, the novelty of DiaNF-RO process is compared with the RO-DiaNF process where ion fractionation is performed at the pretreatment stage (i.e., seawater) in the former and post-treatment stage (i.e., SWRO brine) in the latter. DiaNF-RO outperforms RO-DiaNF in many aspects, including higher Mg recovery, higher SF1Mg-Na, lower scaling risk, and more efficient cost utilization, which emphasizes the benefits of initiating ion fractionation at low salinity in brine management. Secondly, the process practicality is reiterated by showing how desirable performance is achievable at low number of stages with some modifications. One possible adjustment is to improve NF membrane performance in the priority order of higher water permeability, lower Na rejection, and higher Mg rejection, which enables the 2DiaNF-RO to achieve the desirable SF1Mg-Na of 13.7 at 5.71 kWh/m3. Another possible adjustment is to integrate the 2nd RO stage for more product water recovery to achieve a competitive net SEC (4.01 kWh/m3). These results further solidify the industrial implementation possibility of the DiaNF-RO process.

Enhancing nutrient and water recovery from liquid digestate: A comparative study of selective electrodialysis and conventional treatment methods

Ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis proved effective in treating the liquid fraction of anaerobically digested sewage sludge, both with and without an intermediate selective electrodialysis treatment step. The incorporation of selective electrodialysis significantly increased clean water recovery rates (from 38% to 88%) while concurrently reducing its dissolved solids load by almost two orders of magnitude, from 869.0 to 10.3 mg/L. Selective electrodialysis efficiently separated ions into stable fractions that could be post-processed to produce tailored solid fertilizers, such as struvite and ammonium sulfate, on demand. Throughout the system, heavy metals and pharmaceuticals were monitored for potential toxicity and harm to ecosystems. Heavy metals in the effluents of the treatment process both with and without the selective electrodialysis inclusion were below regulatory limits. Traces of ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin, oxytetracycline, and tetracycline were found in ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis concentrates. Currently, there are no established regulations for monitoring pharmaceuticals in digestate, but their presence could potentially complicate the direct use of these concentrates in agricultural applications.

Treatment of Leather Industry Wastewater Using Coagulation, Ultraviolet/Persulfate Processing and Nanofiltration for Water Recovery

Treatment of Leather Industry Wastewater Using Coagulation, Ultraviolet/Persulfate Processing and Nanofiltration for Water Recovery

Techno-economic analysis (TEA) of zero liquid discharge (ZLD) systems for treatment and utilization of brine via resource recovery

The issue pertaining to brine disposal has generated considerable interest in advanced methodologies aimed at harnessing their potential for resource recovery (i.e., water and salts). This techno-economic analysis investigates the technical and economic outlooks of zero liquid discharge (ZLD) desalination systems, employing two distinct crystallization approaches: membrane-promoted crystallization (MPC) in case 1, and wind-aided intensified evaporation (WAIV) in case 2. The findings indicate that case 1 exhibits a higher drinking water recovery rate (96 %) compared to case 2 (84 %), as the crystallization technology adopted in case 2 (WAIV) does not facilitate freshwater recovery. In both systems, the water is extracted via the implementation of efficient technologies, leading to the attainment of ZLD conditions along with minimal brine volumes. In terms of energy and cost requirements, case 1 necessitates a greater total energy demand (19 kWh/m3) and cost (US$95/day) in contrast to case 2 (15 kWh/m3 & US$83/day). Both cases demonstrate feasibility, yielding profits varying from US$179.19/day to US$221.32/day, contingent upon the sale of solely water or both water and solid salt. The insights provided by this study are poised to facilitate viable utilization and management of brine originating from the seawater desalination industry as well as from diverse brine-generating sectors.

Utilizing Hybrid RO-OARO Systems as New Methods for Desalination Process

The scarcity of fresh water and its essential role in sustaining life on Earth have motivated researchers to seek new, low-cost, scalable technologies for water desalination. Therefore, the osmotically assisted reverse osmosis (OARO) membrane process presents an innovative approach to achieve moderate water recoveries from high salinity water without undergoing a phase change. This work aims to investigate the performance of hybrid RO-OARO systems with various designs and operational parameters on recovery and R%. The hybrid systems were evaluated for 60 minutes at feed concentrations of 3.98-5.54 g/l, applied pressures ranging from 3 to 7 bars, and different membrane types. The results showed that the flux of the hybrid system increased by increasing the pressure and decreased by increasing the feed concentration. The highest recovery value was obtained for the RO-OARO system at an RO pressure of 7 bar and an OARO unit at 3 bar for a 3.98 g/l feed concentration. In contrast, when the reverse osmosis pressure was fixed at 5 bar, and the pressure of the OARO unit increased by 2 bar, the recovery value exceeded by about 6%. Furthermore, the FilmTech membrane showed the highest recovery at 31.7%, while the highest R% was 94.55% for the AquaTec membrane. The RO-OARO-OARO system contributed to increasing both the recovery and rejection values by 11.4 and 2.1%, respectively, compared with the RO-OARO system. The experiments in this study revealed a slight increase in the feed concentration of the reverse osmosis unit, indicating the efficiency of the hybrid systems compared to traditional RO systems.

Ultrafast and nanomolar detection of Al3+: Furazan based fluorescent chemosensor and its practices in Smartphone, test kit, water samples and living–cell

A new fluorescent chemoprobe (SDAF) was successfully synthesized and utilized as a sensor for the recognition of Al3+ in EtOH:HEPES (3:2, v:v, pH: 7.0) media. The SDAF depicted a selective “turn–on” response at λem = 467 nm to Al3+ over competitive cations, and the SDAF–Al3+ complex had a reversible response with F−. The limit of detection (LOD) was found about at nano–molar level (28.0 nM), demonstrating the sensitivity of the chemoprobe toward Al3+. The binding stoichiometry of SDAF–Al3+ was investigated by TOF–MS, Job's plot, 1H NMR and 13C NMR methods and found as 1:1. The recognition mechanisms of SDAF for the detection of Al3+ were the –C = N isomerization and photoinduced electron transfer (PET) mechanisms, and they were confirmed by density functional theory (DFT) computation. Furthermore, the SDAF was successfully employed in living–cell bioimaging and cytotoxicity, it was also utilized in Smartphone, test–kit and natural spring water (recovery values; 89.01 %– 96.33 %)applications.

Towards a zero liquid discharge process from brine treatment: Water recovery, nitrate electrochemical elimination and potential valorization of hydrogen and salts

This research addresses the issues related with treatment and valorization of brines and nitrate decontamination of surface and ground waters. The objective was to approximate to zero liquid discharge (ZLD) minimizing the environmental impact of brines of an electrodialysis reversal water treatment plant (EDRWTP) as an example. The innovative in flow process was developed from lab to pre-industrial scale and joined several main concepts: ion-exchange equilibrium for softening or demineralization of brines; reversed osmosis to recover suitable water and to enrich the waste in nitrate for efficient electrochemical reduction of NO3− to N2; valorization of subproducts by direct use or by precipitation; and assessment of the whole process by measuring in-line several parameters. The achieved softening was around 98 % and the recovered water from this current by reversed osmosis was 75 %. The brine of this step (25 %) contained around 1500 mg/L of nitrate and it was treated by electrochemical reduction with a Bi/Sn cathode providing a gas current of 60 % of initial nitrate reduced to N2, O2, H2O, NH3 and at least 97 % of H2. The aqueous current contained around 40 % of initial nitrate as ammonium and nitrite lower than 50 and 5 mg/L, respectively. Hypochlorite was added to this last current for oxidizing ammonium and nitrite to N2 and nitrate, respectively, being nitrate and ammonium lower than 50 and 5 mg/L, respectively. After the obtained water was demineralized and conducted to the EDRWTP inlet. The recovery of insoluble salts as calcium carbonate, reuse of saline solutions for the regeneration of process resins and the potential use of hydrogen generated as a by-product during the electrochemical reduction are other possible utilities.

Improved performance of polyamide nanofiltration membrane embedded with zeolite beta

In this study, zeolite beta nanoparticles were incorporated into an interfacial polymerization procedure for the fabrication of thin film nanocomposites (TFNs). The successful introduction of zeolite beta into the polyamide (PA) selective layer was confirmed by surface attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The introduction of porous structured zeolite beta improved the water flux and rejection rate of the TFN membrane compared to the PA thin film composite (TFC) membrane. A quantitative performance coefficient is further proposed in this work, comprehensively considering the flux and rejection rate to evaluate the performance of TFNs. For five salt solutions, we found that the TFN0.3 membrane with 0.3 wt% of zeolite particles had a high coefficient of performance. With the help of zeolite particles, the TFN0.3 membrane achieved a high flux of 92.53 L/(m2·h) under an operating pressure of 5 bar. For ion separation from binary solutions, the TFN0.2 membrane with 0.2 wt% zeolite content was a better choice for a wide range of binary mixtures, which is because the addition of zeolite beta resulted in smaller pore sizes, the strongest zeta potential, and the thickest thickness (scanning electron microscope, SEM determined) of the TFN0.2 membrane. All these factors contribute to the selectivity of the TFN0.2 membrane. Our study provides an efficient and cost-effective method to simultaneously improve the permeability and rejection of nanofiltration membranes, facilitating the development of nanofiltration for water recovery.

Purification process and mechanism analysis of low-concentration phosphorus wastewater with novel electrodeposition - biochar filter bed

Phosphate‑phosphorus (PO43−-P) is a non-renewable resource. Rapid agricultural activities and inefficient use of phosphate fertilizers contribute to the contamination of natural water resources due to PO43−-P accumulation. PO43−-P recovery in natural water with a low PO43−-P concentration, is conducive to the sustainable utilization of phosphate. Electrodeposition using Ca2+ to recover PO43−-P in natural water has great potential. However, the limitations of low-concentration PO43−-P recovery need to be addressed. This study designed a novel electrodeposition-biochar filter bed (E-BFB) to investigate the removal and recovery ability of PO43−-P at low concentrations. Efficient removal and recovery of PO43−-P was achieved through electrodeposition, biochar adsorption, and accumulation by microorganisms. Effects of different parameters on the performance of E-BFB for PO43−-P removal were studied, including influent PO43−-P concentration, voltage, and electrode spacing. Results showed that 69.4 % PO43−-P was removed when the influent PO43−-P concentration was 0.8 mg/L by E-BFB, as the average removal rate in the biochar filter bed (BFB) was only 11 %. The PO43−-P recovery rate of cathodic electrodeposition was as high as 37.22 %, accounting for 57 % of the total PO43−-P removal amount. The PO43−-P electrodeposition precipitate mainly was amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) through analysis. 16S rRNA results demonstrated that electrodeposition altered the microbial communities. At the genus level, such as Acinetobacter (26.6 %), Acidocella (11.7 %), and Pelomonas (7.2 %) were promoted in the biochar substrate of E-BFB. Overall, this novel E-BFB can remove PO43−-P at low concentrations effectively. It has great application prospects in the treatment of surface water by biofilters or constructed wetlands.

Sustainable non-plasticized polymer inclusion membrane containing an immobilizing optode ligand for in situ ultra-sensitive colorimetric measurement and pre-concentration of beryllium ions in environmental and biological matrices

Beryllium (Be2+) is a type of alkaline earth-divalent metal that enters many strategic industries. The work environment limits concentrations of beryllium is in the range of 0.01 – 1.0 μg mL−1 (ppm), where concentrations exceeding 5.0 ppm of Be2+ lead to acute toxicity, causing pulmonary edema and chemical pneumonitis. Herein, Be2+ was measured selectively in situ down to ultralow concentration levels utilizing a fabricated sensitive polymer inclusion membrane (PIM) as an immobilizing non-plasticized colorimetric optical sensor (optode). The PIM-sensitive optode has been created using an encapsulation method with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as a polymer base, an (E)-6-(4-((2,5-dihydroxyphenyl)diazenyl)phenyl)-2-oxo-4-phenyl-1,2-dihydropyridine-3-carbonitrile (DDP-OPDC) as a selective ligand, and Aliquat 336 as an enhancer extractant. The linear dynamic range of the various standard measurements ranged between 5.0 and 145 ng mL−1 with excellent sensitivity down to 1.6 ng mL−1. Moreover, the manufactured optode was reusable and had sustainable mechanical strength. The method has also successfully quantified Be2+ in the livers and muscles of bovine, chicken, and pork (recovery %; 98.0–––102.3 %) in addition to Be2+ analysis in contaminated tap, mineral, and well water (recovery %; in the range of 93.6–––103.3 %). With an assessment duration of 10 min at a maximum absorbance of 622 nm, the colorimetric evaluations of Be2+ in various samples (water and biological) were rapid, reliable, and reproducible. Furthermore, the obtained results by the developed optode matched excellently those obtained by the comparison atomic absorption spectrometry method.

Efficient and economic water and heat recovery from flue gas by novel hydrophilic polymeric membrane condenser

The membrane technology for water and heat recovery from flue gas possesses the advantages of a simple structure and high water quality. In this study, we propose a novel hydrophilic polymeric membrane condenser (HPMC) to efficiently recover water and heat from flue gas. Compared to current hydrophilic ceramic membrane condenser (HCMC), HPMC offers the benefits of cost-effectiveness and high packing density. An experimental investigation is conducted to explore the fluid flow characteristics as well as the water and heat recovery performance of HPMC. The maximum recovered water flux reaches 6.7 kg/(m2·h), while the maximum recovered heat flux amounts to 18.6 MJ/(m2·h). Enhancing gas/water flow rates or increasing heat transfer temperature difference can significantly improve both recovered water and heat fluxes. Notably, it is found that thermal resistance primarily stems from the polymeric membrane, emphasizing the importance of enhancing the membrane's thermal conductivity to improve HPMC performance. The overall heat transfer coefficient can be enhanced by increasing the gas/water flow rate, while the influence of gas/water temperature on the overall heat transfer coefficient is relatively insignificant. Furthermore, by fitting experimental data, a correlation formula for friction factor is obtained, which greatly enhances accuracy in pressure drop calculations under practical operating conditions. Based on the technical and economic analysis, the payback period for HPMC is merely 0.3 years, significantly shorter than that for HCMC, thereby indicating a substantial potential for commercial application of HPMC. This study demonstrates that the HPMC is an excellent candidate for recovering water and heat from flue gas, and the fundamental data provides valuable foundational insights for future enhancement of HPMC.

Performance assessment and optimization of adsorption-assisted air gap membrane distillation process for remediation of chromium-contaminated groundwater

Chromium contamination in groundwater is becoming a significant concern due to its potential contribution to the global cancer burden. Membrane distillation (MD) is a promising method known for producing high-quality water, yet issues namely temperature and concentration polarizations should be addressed. To overcome these issues, adsorption (ADS) is proposed to reduce Chromium concentration in the concentrated feed and enhance water production and resource recovery. This study assesses the performance optimization considered parameter effects of the process individually and subsequently executes it into a combined process. Slow sand filtration (SSF) is performed to eliminate particles and thus mitigate fouling. A novel Fe3O4@C-SiO2 is introduced in the ADS process. The technical and economic performances of single MD, hybrid systems (ADS-MD and SSF-MD), and an integrated SSF-ADS-MD system are compared. The results showed the integrated process outperformed various scenarios, achieving significant water recovery almost a 2-fold increase in a single process, and notable reductions in Chromium mass (485.3 gr) and abatement (31.4 mg/h). The economic analysis indicated that the benefit-cost ratio of the integrated process is slightly higher compared to hybrid ADS-MD primarily because of the lower costs in SSF. Ultimately, the results underscored the process of SSF and ADS in boosting MD performance, particularly in water production and Chromium reduction, with prudent economic considerations.

Polyethylene glycol-polyvinylidene fluoride/TiO2 nanocomposite polymer coatings with efficient antifouling strategies: Hydrophilized defensive surface and stable capacitive deionization

Capacitive deionization (CDI) is flourishing as an energy-efficient and cost-effective water desalination method. However, challenges such as electrode degradation and fouling have hindered the practical deployment of CDI technology. To address these challenges, the key point of our strategy is applying a hydrophilic coating composed of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-functionalized nano-TiO2/polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) to the electrode interface (labeled as APPT electrode). The PEG/PVDF/TiO2 layer not only mitigates the co-ion depletion, but also imparts the activated carbon (AC) electrode hydrophilicity. As anticipated, the APPT electrode possessed an enhanced desalination capacity of 83.54 μmol g−1 and a low energy consumption of 17.99 Wh m−3 in 10 mM sodium chloride solution compared with the bare AC electrode. Notably, the APPT maintained about 93.19 % of its desalination capacity after 50 consecutive adsorption–desorption cycles in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA). During the trial, moreover, no obvious overall performance decline was noted in concentration reduction (Δc), water recovery (WR) and productivity (P) over 50 cycles. This strategy realizes energy-efficient, antifouling and stable brackish water desalination and has great promise for practical applications.

Heat and water recovery from gaseous stream using a flat-sheet ceramic membrane as a transport membrane condenser

Ceramic-membrane technology has been employed to recover waste heat and vapor from moist gases. In addition to the hydrophilicity, pore size, and porosity of separation materials, a membrane condenser can achieve a high recovery rate. In this study, a transport membrane condenser (TMC) was successfully constructed using a flat-sheet ceramic membrane (FCM) with a large pore size of 45.54 μm. The membrane characteristics, including the mean pore size, pore size distribution, and porosity, were investigated to determine their recovery mechanism. Their water and heat fluxes, recovery rates, and thermal resistance were compared under several experimental conditions. The inlet conditions significantly affect the TMC recovery performance. Higher recovery fluxes were obtained at lower water temperatures, higher gas temperatures, and higher gas flow rates. However, when the Reynolds number of water increased, the heat flux increased rapidly, and the recovered water decreased slightly. The highest TMC water recovery rate was 84.1%. In addition, to further analyze the separation mechanisms, a two-dimensional model was developed using ANSYS Fluent code. The simulation results were compared with the experimental data to verify the accuracy of the numerical method. The comparison results showed a high degree of consistency.

Effect of air profiling and frother concentration on a flotation bank performance

The impact of air distribution on the metallurgical performance of a flotation bank operating with a mineral slurry having a moderate and high frother concentration is assessed. A flotation bank of two and three 5L Denver cells was implemented, and air flow was distributed down the bank as increasing and decreasing profiles. It was observed that when operating the bank configurations with a moderate frother concentration (10 ppm DF 400) the increasing profile provided the highest Cu enrichment ratio at the expense of a slight reduction in Cu recovery. This increase in selectivity was mainly due to a significant reduction in the water recovery and mass-pull in the first cell. When the bank operated with a high frother concentration, i.e., well beyond the CCC, a significant increase in water recovery was observed, producing a significant loss in selectivity that could not be compensated by air profiling.

Brine concentration using air gap diffusion distillation: A performance model and cost comparison with membrane distillation for high salinity desalination

Zero liquid discharge (ZLD) has emerged as a treatment process to address the challenges with brine disposal from desalination plants. To achieve ZLD, a brine concentrator is commonly used to extract water up to a high salinity approaching saturation. However, state-of-the-art brine concentrators are energy-intensive thermal evaporators comprising expensive metal alloys and complex maintenance. This study presents the design of a new brine concentrator referred to as air gap diffusion distillation (AGDD) that operates without a membrane up to a high salinity. A holistic analytical model is developed to evaluate the system performance in terms of its energy efficiency (gain output ratio, GOR) and water flux (represented as the recovery ratio, RR), as these metrics directly impact the levelized cost of water (LCOW). A multi-pass AGDD system achieves an overall water recovery of ~70 % and GOR of 7 (88 % latent heat recovery) with an initial feed salinity of 70 g/kg. A comparison is made to its thermodynamically similar counterpart, air gap membrane distillation (AGMD), which reveals that AGDD outperforms AGMD by eliminating heat and mass transport resistances associated with the membrane. The corresponding LCOW is 1.6× lower than AGMD, making it promising as a brine concentrator to achieve salinities >200 g/kg for minimal liquid discharge.

Towards a Circular Economy in the Mining Industry: Possible Solutions for Water Recovery through Advanced Mineral Tailings Dewatering

The mining industry is confronted with substantial challenges in achieving environmental sustainability, particularly regarding water usage, waste management, and dam safety. The increasing global demand for minerals has led to increased mining activities, resulting in significant environmental consequences. By 2025, an estimated 19 billion tons of solid tailings are projected to accumulate worldwide, exacerbating concerns over their management. Tailings storage facilities represent the largest water sinks within mining operations. The mismanagement of water content in tailings can compromise their stability, leading to potential dam failures and environmental catastrophes. In response to these pressing challenges, the mining industry is increasingly turning to innovative solutions such as tailings dewatering and water reuse/recycling strategies to promote sustainable development. This review paper aims to (I) redefine the role of mine tailings and explore their physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics; (II) discuss environmental concerns associated with conventional disposal methods; (III) explore recent advancements in dewatering techniques, assessing their potential for water recovery, technical and economic constraints, and sustainability considerations; (IV) and present challenges encountered in water treatment and recycling within the mining industry, highlighting areas for future research and potential obstacles in maximizing the value of mine tailings while minimizing their environmental impact.

Water Recovery from Wastewater by Hydrogels

Water Recovery from Wastewater by Hydrogels

Numerical analysis of water, energy, and environment nexus in the hybrid thermal and solar multigeneration power plants

AbstractThe challenge of providing water, energy, and managing the environment is widely recognized as a significant barrier to global advancement in light of the increasing population. Based on projections, it is anticipated that the global community will encounter crises pertaining to water, energy and the environment in the foreseeable future. In this research, the application of the hybrid renewable system in a thermal power plant has been assessed based on the approach of analyzing the link between energy, water, and environment. The design of the solar system and the assessment of carbon balance during the power plant lifetime have been conducted in PVsyst application in 2022. Moreover, ReCipe environmental model has been used for assessing the effect of decrease in carbon emission on the ecosystem. The findings of the research indicate that the replacement of at least 2% of the nominal capacity of the fossil fuel power plant with the renewable one, prevents the emission of 1340.37 tons of carbon dioxide yearly. This amount equals to 371.25 m3 of reserve in fossil fuel consumption and 382.64 tons of crude oil. The results also showed that in addition to preserving natural resources, the hybrid cycle design leads to significant water demand reduction which equals to 3751 m3 with the capacity to supply underground water sources. Due to the interests of preserving water and energy resources and decreasing carbon emission in power plant industry, within the framework of nexus approach, management of energy supply by replacing resources and using water and heat recovery technologies and application of energy demand management policies based on energy efficiency and environmental implications is recommended.