Water Pressure Research Articles

Unveiling a water-resilient service economy: A model-based approach for enhanced service excellence in GVCs

Urbanization, climate change, and irresponsible resource management exacerbate the global water crisis. The necessity for water resilience, the capacity of systems and communities to adjust and flourish in the face of water shocks and pressures, has been brought to light by these critical issues. Water resilience enables Global Value Chains (GVCs) to survive scarcity, pollution, and flooding, ensuring sustainability and service delivery. Current service excellence models focus on stakeholder satisfaction, punctuality, and reliability over water resilience. This oversight may limit GVC growth and flexibility, reducing sector services. As recommended service excellence models focus on satisfaction, punctuality and reliability among stakeholders but water resilience is not considered. This can create issues for the growth and flexibility of GVCs which could cut back on services sector. This research is examined a complex relationship between service quality and water resilience to improve the GVCs in China regions especially Guangdong Province, Shanghai Municipality, and Beijing Municipality. By using multiple regression, GVCs service quality and water resilience is analyzed in the existence of Service Excellence Model. The study used 15 years (2009–2023) secondary data to measure how water resilience and GVCs services quality affect each other in Chinese regions. The results show that water resilience strategies can strengthen global production networks, optimize resource usage, and enhance service excellence. Chinese GVCs can produce a water-resilient service economy, enlightening service quality and preserving competitiveness in rapidly changing global markets.

Dependence of Pressure Characteristics of Pressurized Pulse Water Jet Chamber on Nozzle Diameter

The nozzle is the key element of the water jet generator for energy conversion. In order to explore the influence of the nozzle diameter on the pressure characteristics of the supercharged pulsed water jet plenum chamber, a supercharged pulsed water jet pressure acquisition system was established, and the equations of motion and theoretical pressurization ratio equations of the supercharged pulsed water jet generator were established. The pressurization chamber pressure acquisition experiments under different nozzle diameters were carried out. The research results show that the pressurized pulsed water jet generator has a critical nozzle diameter of 0.6 mm. When the nozzle diameter is less than the critical diameter, the pressure in the boost chamber is equal to the product of the driving pressure and the boost ratio. As the nozzle changes, there is no significant change in the peak pressure and frequency of the boost chamber. When the nozzle diameter is greater than the critical diameter, there is a non-linear relationship between the boost chamber pressure and the driving pressure. As the nozzle diameter gradually increases, the actual boost ratio gradually decreases, and the peak pressure of the boost chamber further decreases. The nozzle diameter can no longer provide a load for the establishment of fluid pressure in the boost chamber. The results of this research provide a research basis for further controlling the pressure characteristics of the boost pulse water jet.

Characteristics of heat transfer in corrosion products deposited on the surface of pressurized water reactor fuel elements

The occurrence of porous deposits on the core surface during the operation of a pressurized water reactor can seriously affect its heat transfer characteristics and increase the surface temperature of the cladding. Continued heat transfer deterioration causes subcooled boiling and boron enrichment within porous deposits, leading to axial power anomalies in the core, and the study of porous deposits is beneficial to improving the economics and safety of reactor operation. In this paper, a two-dimensional boiling unit model of a porous deposits was established using COMSOL software to couple heat conduction, darcy flow, solute transport and chemical reactions in a multiphysics field to reasonably predict the temperature field, velocity field, boric acid concentration distribution, and PH distribution within the porous deposits. On this basis, the influence of different parameters (porosity, boiling unit radius of porous deposits, heat flow density) on the maximum effective thermal conductivity, the pattern of thermal parameters (temperature, superheat, percentage of subcooled boiling, and saturation temperature) on the chimney boundary are analyzed. The results show that localized superheating, maximum boric acid concentration and subcooled boiling occur at the bottom of the porous deposits. There is a negative correlation between the porosity and the percentage of subcooled boiling area, and a positive correlation between the radius of the porous deposits and the heat flow density and the percentage of subcooled boiling area.

Autoclave grid-to-rod fretting corrosion behaviors of the Zr alloy fuel cladding with and without Cr coating through advanced characterization

The fretting corrosion behaviors and the associated mechanisms of Zr alloy claddings with and without Cr coating in the primary water (310 °C/15.5 MPa) of the simulated pressurized water reactor were studied and compared. The results demonstrated that the fretting corrosion resistance of Zr alloy cladding was improved significantly by the introduction of Cr coating. The increased fretting corrosion resistance of the Cr-coated Zr alloy cladding was mainly attributed for two reasons. Firstly, the metallic Cr had much greater hardness than the Zr alloy and the formation of the ultra-fine grains layer under the worn scar further increased its hardness. Secondly, the metallic Cr had much better plasticity than the ZrO2 layer, resulting in better resistance to fatigue failure.

Impact and tangential composite fretting wear of Zr-4 alloy tubes under random loading conditions

The fuel rod casing tube is a crucial component in pressurized water reactor (PWR) nuclear power plants. Flow-induced vibrations in the circulating water can result in complex alternating fretting wear between the casing tube and the positioning lattice frame. Existing research on fretting wear has primarily focused on unidirectional wear, with limited investigation into composite fretting wear under complex working conditions. This study conducted impact and tangential composite fretting wear tests on Zr-4 alloy tubes under varying constant and random impact loads to examine fretting wear behavior. The findings show that the peak friction coefficients in the impact and tangential composite fretting wear tests were consistent across the three constant load conditions, with higher peak friction coefficients observed under random load conditions and a longer time required to reach these peaks during micromotion tests. Comparative analysis revealed that random impact and tangential composite fretting wear caused the most severe damage. Under constant load conditions, wear damage became more severe with increasing load, transitioning from oxidized and adhesive wear to a peeling layer as the load intensified in the impact and tangential composite fretting wear tests.

Enhancing anti-diabetic activity and reducing cytotoxicity of T. crispa extracts through sustainable approach of pressurized hot water extraction and micelle-mediated separation

In this study, pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) was evaluated for the recovery of anti-diabetic borapetoside C (BPC) from T. crispa stems. The maximum BPC extraction efficiency obtained at 100 ˚C, 2.5 MPa and 5.0 mL/min was considerably higher than that obtained by the conventional methods. Under optimized conditions, one-site kinetic desorption model could most accurately describe the PHWE behavior, suggesting an intra-particle diffusion-controlled mechanism. The undesirable compounds in the extract were further removed by micelle-mediated separation (MMS), in which Tween 80 was added, followed by NaCl addition and slight temperature increase to induce phase separation. At the most suitable MMS condition, with 0.028 mM Tween 80, 0.4 M NaCl, at 85 ˚C, the majority (87 %) of BPC could be recovered in the aqueous phase after 40 min. After MMS, the resulting extract exhibited low cytotoxicity against L6 and HepG2 cells while maintaining significant α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition activities.

Field Test and Numerical Simulation Study on Water Pressure Distribution and Lining Deformation Law in Water-Rich Tunnel Crossing Fault Zones

Field Test and Numerical Simulation Study on Water Pressure Distribution and Lining Deformation Law in Water-Rich Tunnel Crossing Fault Zones

Characterizing water level responses to barometric pressure fluctuations from seconds to days

A regression deconvolution method using distributed lags for the efficient calculation of barometric/loading response functions in the presence of Earth tides and background trends was applied to water pressure measurements collected every second. This method was able to simultaneously deconvolve multiple stresses that can be used for both signal decomposition (removal of noise and isolation of signals) and the determination of impulse response functions that can be interpreted for hydraulic properties and subsurface characterization. We also demonstrate how the static barometric efficiency is a deficient parameter when applied to wells having delayed responses and needs to be applied with care. The distributed lag method combined with high frequency monitoring has implications for improved site characterization, determining the continuity of subsurface features, parameter estimation, understanding the degree of confinement, and signal decomposition. The methods for this paper can be found in the R hydrorecipes package.

Modelling transport pathways of faults with low hydraulic connectivity in mudstones with low swelling capacity

Faults in some deep mudstones have poor hydraulic connectivity owing to high normal stress on the fault planes. Designing a method for modelling solute transport pathways in such faults/fractures using available data is a critical issue vis-à-vis the safety assessment of radioactive waste disposal. In this study, faults in deep siliceous mudstones with low swelling capacity are investigated using cross-hole hydraulic and tracer tests between two boreholes. The water pressures observed during the hydraulic test are reproduced via hydraulic simulations, assuming a one-dimensional (1D) flow channel with a length 8–80 times the linear distance (4.5 m) between the two borehole test sections. This flow channel length indicates a tortuosity remarkably higher than that previously reported in discrete fracture network simulations and laboratory experiments using a single fracture (i.e. 1–5). Advection–dispersion simulations using a pipe model with a tortuosity of 8–80 reproduces a time series of tracer concentrations observed during the tracer test. The radius of the pipe simulated in the tracer test was 7–39 times the flow channel radius estimated via the hydraulic test, which is in agreement with the ratio of 5–20 previously reported based on in situ tracer and hydraulic tests of faulted/fractured rocks. The simulated longitudinal dispersivity is 1/9–1/20 of the estimated flow path lengths, in agreement with the laboratory and field tracer study values. These results indicate that transport pathways in faults with low hydraulic connectivity can be modelled using a highly tortuous 1D pipe flow path.

A cumulative damage model for tubes in nuclear power plants subject to continuous degradation and multi-effect shocks under dynamic environments

Continuous degradation and shocks are two vital damage mechanisms for tubes under dynamic environments in nuclear power plants (NPPs). In this work, we presented a cumulative damage model to evaluate the reliability of tubes in NPPs, which accounts for continuous degradation and random shocks. The dynamic environments were assumed to obey a homogenous Markov process. Continuous degradation was described as a general stochastic process with independent increments. A multinomial distribution was used to depict the multiple effects of Poisson-distributed shocks on tubes. The influence of dynamic environments on the cumulative damage process of tubes was also explicitly modeled. Closed-form reliability measures were derived, such as reliability functions and mean time to failure (MTTF) of tubes. Drawing upon a case study from the existing literature, the analytical solution was validated through a comparative analysis with the outcomes of Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) and other methodologies referenced in the literature. As a practical engineering application, the reliability of steam generator tubes made of Alloy 690 within pressurized water reactors (PWRs), which are susceptible to primary side stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) and the effects of water hammer, was calculated. The findings indicate that the probabilities of steam generator tube rupture (SGTR) as estimated by the model and those inferred from operational experience have the same order of magnitude.

Scale effects on core design, fuel costs, and spent fuel volume of pressurized water reactors

The desire to improve the economic competitiveness and deployment pace of nuclear energy through modularization, manufacturing, and series production had led to the development of smaller size reactors. As the standard 17x17 fuel technology is mainly maintained in the pressurized water reactors (PWRs) category, this translates into a lower number of fuel assemblies in the core and sometimes a reduced fuel height. To assess the impact of such scale change in core design on fuel cycle cost and spent fuel volume, a scoping analysis tool is developed based on infinite lattice calculations, leakage, fuel management reduced models, and levelized unit cost of electricity (LCOE) estimate. As such, cost dynamics driven by fuel specific power, burnup, core leakage, feed, cycle length, fuel assembly height as well as uranium market data are captured with consistent set of assumptions and analysis methods. A selection of 5 reactor designs representative of leading PWR developers is assessed and compared. Pursuing higher specific powers and optimal burnups are highlighted as the main fuel cost reduction drivers, nevertheless, practical limitations and opportunities must be evaluated to establish the feasibility of such enhanced fuel operation. In consequence, a detailed core design is performed using SIMULATE3 code for 5 PWR variations including natural and forced coolant circulation modes, two reactor scales, power densities of 73, 112, and 123 kW/l and higher discharge burnups. Design and optimization are performed at the lattice level, for the reflector, and at the core loading level. Satisfactory steady-state operation including power distribution, coolant operating limits, and reactivity requirements are analyzed and reported in this paper. The fuel economics of the detailed core designs confirm the scoping analysis findings. Despite the unlocked power uprates in small PWRs, the achievable burnup for a given fuel specific power requires more enrichment and shorter fuel height results in higher fabrication costs per mass of fuel, which makes scaling down core size a more expensive endeavor on the fuel cycle front. Spent fuel volumes are reported for the PWRs designed in this paper. These volumes are driven by the core average discharge burnup regardless of the scale in consideration. Additional cost and core performance aspects related to heavy reflector gains, fuel-reflector substitution, and disposal cost policy in the U.S. are examined.

Diagnosis of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell: Should We Rely Only on Electrical Quantities?

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEMFC) will play a central role in the establishment of a de-carbonized society. They are seen as a key technology to empower electric heavy-duty vehicles. However, the lifespan is still below the fixed standards for their commercialization. A way to increase their durability is to complement them during operation with a mitigation strategy enabling to avoid the arise of faulty states accelerating degradation processes. Nowadays, most of the proposed fault identification and isolation architectures rely on monitoring of the performance through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Nevertheless, the analysis of impedance data is often complicated, since the contribution of many processes in the EIS spectra are coupled with each other and, for this reason, difficult to identify. This constitutes a limiting factor for its employment as diagnostic tool. In the last years, in order to overcome such issues, the use of nonelectrical periodic inputs and/or outputs has been advanced. The idea motivating this research direction is the possibility to detect the contribution of selected processes on the performance of PEMFCs separating them from the others. Novel frequency response techniques involving back pressure, temperature and partial pressure have been developed [1].In this contribution, the so-called concentration frequency response analysis (CFRA) is considered [2, 3]. It consists on perturbing the cathode side of the cell with a feed characterized by a periodic partial pressure of oxygen and water, and the detection of the electric response, voltage or current. A test station has been designed and constructed in order to apply this technique and investigate its capabilities. A model based analysis of the measured CFRA spectra indicates the possibility to decouple the contributions of the water transport into Nafion and oxygen mass transport on the performance of the cell depending on the chosen concentration input and electrical output. In this way, the analysis and identification of the related power losses is simplified with respect to classic EIS.Moreover, the performance of a fault identification and isolation architecture employing CFRA as monitoring technique have been evaluated and compared to EIS. For such purpose, an identifiability analysis of parameters related to faulty states and obtained by model fitting to spectra of each technique has been performed. The results clearly show that the employment of CFRA based on water pressure input offers the most reliable parameter estimation and, consequently, constitutes the most preferable diagnosis method among the others analyzed.

Design and Performance Evaluation of a Specialized Bubbler System for Accurate and Repeatable Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) Testing

Accurate assessment of Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) performance demands standardized testing conditions, particularly in stable steam delivery. Fluctuations in steam concentration and flow rate can significantly impact measured open-circuit voltage (OCV) and polarization behavior. Although direct steam injection is straightforward, it is often hindered by instability resulting from intermittent liquid water flux, pressure fluctuations, and fractional distillation effects. Bubbler humidification systems have the potential to offer consistent steam, but tailored designs for SOEC testing are currently absent.This study introduces a specialized bubbler system designed to deliver stable steam to SOEC test stands accommodating both oxygen-conducting (O-SOEC) and proton-conducting (H-SOEC) cells. The bubbler components include a refill water reservoir, a level control module, heating elements, pressure relief valves, check valves, tubing, and fittings integrated with the test stand. The system humidifies the sweep gas, transporting steam to the cell test fixture situated within a high-temperature furnace.The design process involved meticulous considerations of materials compatibility, hydrogen safety, and overtemperature protection. All wetted components employ stainless steel, glass, or PTFE materials in their construction construction. Redundant thermocouples ensure safe process temperatures with automated overtemperature shut off. The refill reservoir and bubbler headspace operate near ambient pressure, facilitated by an exhaust line vent sized for minimal backpressure.In various executed O-SOEC tests, the bubbler maintained OCV stability within ±5 mV over several hundred hours for each cell operating at 750°C, eliminating spikes caused by steam fluctuations observed with direct injection methods. This facilitates precise electrochemical analysis and determination of area-specific resistance losses. Polarization curves align with expected behavior based on the Nernst equation. The system has demonstrated safe and stable functionality for over thousands of hours across various operating conditions.The bubbler design presents researchers with notable advantages over existing steam supply options for SOEC test stands, addressing performance, safety, and flexibility concerns. Online instrumentation enables closed-loop control of steam conditions, enhancing stability. Standardization of test equipment is crucial for quality results, and this work contributes progress toward reproducible protocols in the international SOEC community. The modular bubbler approach, integrated with safety features, also signifies safer methodology choices for lab-scale experimental research.

Simulation of a Passive Osmosis-Integrated Electrolyzer for Seawater Electrolysis

The requirement for extremely pure water in electrolysis, combined with the abundant presence of seawater, has prompted extensive research into the creation of direct seawater electrolysis technology for decades [1]. However, these efforts have had limited success due to other limiting issues that arise, including competition with the chloring evolution reaction, increased membrane resistance, corrosion of electrode materials and electrode scaling due to the presence of multivalent cations. To avoid these issues, seawater is typically first desalinated using reverse osmosis, but that comes with additional energy cost. Therefore, our project has proposed a new reactor that integrates passive osmosis (extracting fresh water from seawater) with electrolysis.In this presentation, we will discuss the operation of the osmosis-integrated electrolyzer and show theoretical predictions of the osmotic pressure differential and water flux/velocity profiles under different conditions. The numerical model that will be presented was applied to three different cell designs that have been physically developed. The first cell consists of two anion exchange membranes (AEMs) with two side chambers containing KOH and a middle chamber containing Sodium Chloride (NaCl). The second cell has KOH in one outer compartment and H2SO4 in the other. The central compartment containing NaCl is separated from KOH compartment by an AEM and the H2SO4 compartment by a cation exchange membrane (CEM). The third cell eliminates the central compartment and allows the osmosis to occur outside of the cell.The simulation results show that by increasing the concentration of KOH and H2SO4 in the side chambers for all three models, the amount of water transferred from the middle chamber, containing of NaCl to the side chambers increases. The simulation results were validated by experiments (Figure 1). In addition, the model is able to quantify the transport of ions in the system, including chloride ions through the AEM. Lastly, the mass transfer model is integrated with an electrochemical model where an anode and cathode are added to the system to consume the water that is transported through the membranes.Reference:[1] M. A. Khan, T. Al-Attas, S. Roy, M. M. Rahman, N. Ghaffour, V. Thangadurai, S. Larter, J. Hu, P. M. Ajayan, and M. G. Kibria, “Seawater electrolysis for hydrogen production: a solution looking for a problem?” Energy & Environmental Science, 14, 4831 (2021). Figure 1

Numerical investigations on the performance of coupled NCL based passive heat removal system of an IPHWR

Passive heat removal systems (PHRS) are indispensable additional safety features in nuclear reactors to deal with station blackout (SBO) conditions. These systems are based on coupled natural circulation loops (C-NCL) connected in series configuration. Further, these system's design, operating conditions, working fluid, heat removal capacity, etc., are specific to the reactor type. In the present work, the operational performance of such first of a kind PHRS of 700 MWe Indian pressurized heavy water reactor (IPHWR) is investigated. For this purpose, a coupled two-phase NCL code is developed, validated and employed. This PHRS consists of two NCLs connected in HHVC-VHVC (horizontal heater and vertical cooler - vertical heater and vertical cooler) configuration. In this study, initially, the full power reactor thermal-hydraulic conditions are established, subsequently, the performance of the PHRS under SBO is investigated. The analyses demonstrated that the system is adequate to effectively eradicate the decay heat by establishing single and two-phase natural circulation (NC) flows of ∼4.5 % and ∼5.6 % of rated conditions in primary and secondary transport loops, respectively. The maximum PHRS capability is predicted to be ∼72 MWth which is more than 3 % of full power. The transients of flow, pressure, energy transfer and heat sink thermal conditions are analyzed when the system changes from forced to NC. Further, the influence of system conditions such as loop diameter, loop height, sink volume, sink temperature and heat exchanger area on PHRS performance was predicted and the changes in system parameters were analyzed. The vital parameters influencing the PHRS performance are identified based on sensitivity analyses. This investigation provides significant insight into the flow and heat transfer characteristics of two-phase and coupled NCLs in the PHRS.

Superposition‐based concurrent multiscale approaches for porodynamics

AbstractThe current study presents superposition‐based concurrent multiscale approaches for porodynamics, capable of capturing related physical phenomena, such as soil liquefaction and dynamic hydraulic fracture branching, across different spatial length scales. Two scenarios are considered: superposition of finite element discretizations with varying mesh densities, and superposition of peridynamics (PD) and finite element method (FEM) to handle discontinuities like strain localization and cracks. The approach decomposes the acceleration and the rate of change in pore water pressure into subdomain solutions approximated by different models, allowing high‐fidelity models to be used locally in regions of interest, such as crack tips or shear bands, without neglecting the far‐field influence represented by low‐fidelity models. The coupled stiffness, mass, compressibility, permeability, and damping matrices were derived based on the superposition‐based current multiscale framework. The proposed FEM‐FEM porodynamic coupling approach was validated against analytical or numerical solutions for one‐ and two‐dimensional dynamic consolidation problems. The PD‐FEM porodynamic coupling model was applied to scenarios like soil liquefaction‐induced shear strain accumulation near a low‐permeability interlayer in a layered deposit and dynamic hydraulic fracturing branching. It has been shown that the coupled porodynamic model offers modeling flexibility and efficiency by taking advantage of FEM in modeling complex domains and the PD ability to resolve discontinuities.

Physical model case study: treatment effect of soft ground by vacuum preloading combined with liquid bag pressurization method

Vacuum preloading and composite ground reinforcement are commonly used methods for reinforcing soft soil, but there is a lack of integrated design method for vacuum preloading combined with composite ground. This case study introduces an innovative approach that combines vacuum preloading with liquid bag pressurization to achieve the integrated design of consolidation drainage method and composite ground reinforcement, which is different from the reported air bag pressurization. To illustrate the effectiveness of this method. Model tests were carried out to analyze the variation of water discharge, pore water pressure, ground settlement, and average consolidation degree in the process of vacuum consolidation. The study investigated the water content, undrained shear strength, and ground bearing capacity of composite ground after ground treatment. A correlation between average undrained shear strength and characteristic value of ground-bearing capacity was established to evaluate and predict the treatment effect of composite ground. Research shows that compared with traditional vacuum preloading, the undrained shear strength can be increased by 13.78%–65.08%, and the characteristic value of bearing capacity for the composite ground can be enlarged by 2.3–4 times. These results indicate that the vacuum preloading combined with liquid bag pressurization can significantly improve reinforcement effect on soft ground.

Strain response law of large-diameter PCCPs under internal water pressure based on BOTDA

Prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCPs) are widely used in trans-regional large-scale water conveyance projects, so it is of great significance to monitor their condition. In this paper, the Brillouin Optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) sensing system is used to measure the circumferential strain of PCCPs under internal water pressure. The test results show that BOTDA technology can accurately monitor the shape variable of the outer wall of the pipe. Moreover, the circumferential strain is not uniform, and there are multiple relative maxima and minima. When the internal water pressure is 1.2 MPa, the absolute maximum and minimum strain is 579.17με and 217.78με respectively. In addition, there is a positive linear correlation between the strain and the internal water pressure, but the hysteresis effect is obvious in the case of insufficient water filling. This study provides reliable experimental data for the application of distributed optical fiber sensing technology in large-diameter water pipelines.

Effect of dissolved KOH and NaCl on the solubility of water in hydrogen: A Monte Carlo simulation study.

Vapor-Liquid Equilibria (VLE) of hydrogen (H2) and aqueous electrolyte (KOH and NaCl) solutions are central to numerous industrial applications such as alkaline electrolysis and underground hydrogen storage. Continuous fractional component Monte Carlo simulations are performed to compute the VLE of H2 and aqueous electrolyte solutions at 298-423K, 10-400bar, 0-8 molKOH/kg water, and 0-6 molNaCl/kg water. The densities and activities of water in aqueous KOH and NaCl solutions are accurately modeled (within 2% deviation from experiments) using the non-polarizable Madrid-2019 Na+/Cl- ion force fields for NaCl and the Madrid-Transport K+ and Delft Force Field of OH- for KOH, combined with the TIP4P/2005 water force field. A free energy correction (independent of pressure, salt type, and salt molality) is applied to the computed infinite dilution excess chemical potentials of H2 and water, resulting in accurate predictions (within 5% of experiments) for the solubilities of H2 in water and the saturated vapor pressures of water for a temperature range of 298-363K. The compositions of water and H2 are computed using an iterative scheme from the liquid phase excess chemical potentials and densities, in which the gas phase fugacities are computed using the GERG-2008 equation of state. For the first time, the VLE of H2 and aqueous KOH/NaCl systems are accurately captured with respect to experiments (i.e., for both the liquid and gas phase compositions) without compromising the liquid phase properties or performing any refitting of force fields.

Continuous low water pressure dissection technique minimizing air bubbles during underwater endoscopic submucosal dissection.

Continuous low water pressure dissection technique minimizing air bubbles during underwater endoscopic submucosal dissection.