Water Management Techniques Research Articles

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF BENCHMARKING AS A MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE IN THE FIELD OF WATER IN ROMANIA

Given the public and permanent nature, of the public utility services, as a continuous operation, coupled with the dynamics of changes in technology, communication, labor market and last but not least the many changes in recent years of legislation and tax regulations in Romania, lead to increased pressure on decision-makers in the field of public utility services with an impact on housing. This topic was chosen in the context of the economic realities in Romania in the field of public utility services with an impact on housing, an area that reflects the ongoing concerns for a development that will ensure technological reform and integration into European financial structures. It is of real interest for any entity in the field of public utility services with an impact on housing concerned about the need to implement a decision-making and financial mechanism that provides a clear and relevant picture of the performance of services provided. In this context, the opinion of the International Water Association Group of Specialists that “benchmarking is a tool for improving performance through systematic research and best practice” has motivated many water companies to introduce benchmarking as a method of management. This article provides an overview of benchmarking as a water management technique for European Benchmarking Co-operation (EBC) compared to the national benchmarking exercise called H2Obenchmark. Due to the fact that both are based on the methodology developed by the International Water Association (IWA), the most important advantage of these benchmarking techniques is that they ensure comparability at any time with any water company in the world that uses the same system. By ensuring the opportunity for knowledge transfer, operators are able to identify and implement best practices and innovative solutions to the realities they face in the field of management, operations and investment projects. The brief diagnosis of water benchmarking in Romania highlights the fact that H2OBenchmark is a mature benchmarking exercise, with experience gained and maintained both in the water sector (ARA, CEB, OR, ANRSC, etc.) and partner consultants.

Logiques d’acteurs dans la gestion des eaux usées et assainissement dans la commune d’arrondissement de Bafoussam 1er (Ouest-Cameroun)

The management of waste water has become an important and even paramount concern in daily life all over the world. Hygiene and sanitation conditions are gradually deteriorating in Cameroonian cities. Population explosion and the uncontrolled urbanization are weakening the existing waste management systems. The goal of this study is to show how waste water management by different stakeholders can contribute to the sanitation of Bafoussam I. To achieve this goal, the hypothetico-deductive method is used to compare the initial hypotheses with the reality on the ground, based on various sources and especially a survey of 106 households. The information on diseases related to living in unsanitary conditions and on drinking poor quality water collected in households was complemented by information collected in health centres and physical-chemical and bacteriological analyses of 6 samples of waste water taken. These findings indicate that the attempts initiated by households very often bring only temporary solutions and reveal rudimentary facilities whose state of operation constitutes in itself a source of pollution. The malfunction of sanitation facilities leads to the pollution of surface water, groundwater, soil and air quality. Repeated illness (malaria, typhoid fever, diarrhoea, etc.) that are highly prevalent in health facilities are linked to defective hygiene and insalubrity. The successful mastery of waste water management techniques and sanitation would be effective with the participation of all stakeholders.

A Multi–Step Approach for Optically Active and Inactive Water Quality Parameter Estimation Using Deep Learning and Remote Sensing

Water is a fundamental resource for human survival but the consumption of water that is unfit for drinking leads to serious diseases. Access to high–resolution satellite imagery provides an opportunity for innovation in the techniques used for water quality monitoring. With remote sensing, water quality parameter concentrations can be estimated based on the band combinations of the satellite images. In this study, a hybrid remote sensing and deep learning approach for forecasting multi–step parameter concentrations was investigated for the advancement of the traditionally employed water quality assessment techniques. Deep learning models, including a convolutional neural network (CNN), fully connected network (FCN), recurrent neural network (RNN), multi–layer perceptron (MLP), and long short term memory (LSTM), were evaluated for multi–step estimations of an optically active parameter, i.e., electric conductivity (EC), and an inactive parameter, i.e., dissolved oxygen (DO). The estimation of EC and DO concentrations can aid in the analysis of the levels of impurities and oxygen in water. The proposed solution will provide information on the necessary changes needed in water management techniques for the betterment of society. EC and DO parameters were taken as independent variables with dependent parameters, i.e., pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids, chlorophyll–α, Secchi disk depth, and land surface temperature, which were extracted from Landsat–8 data from the years 2014–2021 for the Rawal stream network. The bi–directional LSTM obtained better results with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.2 (mg/L) for DO and an RMSE of 281.741 (μS/cm) for EC, respectively. The results suggest that a hybrid approach provides efficient and accurate results in feature extraction and evaluation of multi–step forecast of both optically active and inactive water quality parameters.

Rice farmers’ perceptions and response to climate variability, and determinants of adaptation strategies in the Republic of Benin

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to evaluate rice farmers’ perceptions on the manifestations of the climate change and identify efficient strategies and determinants of adoption of these strategies in the Republic of Benin.Design/methodology/approachSurveys were conducted using participatory research appraisal tools and techniques, such as direct observation, individual interviews and field visits through a questionnaire for data collection. A total of 418 rice farmers across 39 villages located in the three climatic zones of the Republic of Benin were interviewed. Farmers’ perceptions, temperature from 1952 to 2018 and rainfall from 1960 to 2018 data obtained from meteorological stations were analysed using descriptive and inferences statistics.FindingsAll the surveyed farmers were aware of climate change and perceived diverse manifestations including the delay in rainfall regarded as the most important risk. They perceived that deforestation, no respect for the laws of nature and desacralization of morals, no respect for cultures and the traditional rainmakers are the main causes of climate change. The disruption of agricultural calendar and the reduction in rice yield were perceived as the main impacts of climate change in rice production. They used various approaches to adapt and mitigate climate change effects. The adoption of adaptation strategies was influenced either negatively or positively by the household size, land size, education level, membership to rice farmer’s association, training in rice production, access to extension services, use of improved varieties and the location in climatic zones.Research limitations/implicationsFor each climatic zone of the Republic of Benin, weather data were collected in only one meteorological station.Practical implicationsThe study showed that it is important to educate rice farmers on the scientific causes of climate change for better resilience. There is an urgent need to train rice farmers in irrigation and water management techniques to cope with climate variability. To promote irrigation, the authors suggest the establishment of a subsidy and credit mechanism by the government. Factors that influenced adoption of efficient adaptation strategies to climate events must be taken into account for future adaptation policies in the Republic of Benin.Originality/valueThis study provided an overview of the perceptions and adaptations of rice farmers along the climatic gradient in the Republic of Benin. Therefore, the knowledge of the determining factors of the adaptation strategies used by rice farmers could be used in the setting up of effective climate change resilience policies in Benin.

Traditional Water Governance Practices for Flood Mitigation in Ancient Sri Lanka

The tank cascade system, which emerged as early as the fifth century BC in Sri Lanka’s dry zone, has been portrayed as one of the oldest water management practices in the world. However, its important function as flood management has not yet been thoroughly examined. In this paper, we argue that the main principle behind the tank cascade system is not only to recycle and reuse water resources by taking advantage of natural landscapes but also to control floods. This paper examines the evolution of traditional water management and flood mitigation techniques that flourished in pre-colonial Sri Lanka. This historical examination also sheds light on recent policies that exhibited renewed interests in revitalizing some aspects of the tank cascade system in Sri Lanka’s dry zone. This paper shows how ancient Sinhalese engineers and leaders incorporated traditional scientific and engineering knowledge into flood mitigation by engendering a series of innovations for land use planning, embankment designs, and water storage technologies. It also discusses how this system was governed by both kingdoms and local communities. Water management and flood control were among the highest priorities in urban planning and management. The paper thus discusses how, for centuries, local communities successfully sustained the tank cascade system through localized governance, which recent revitalized traditional water management projects often lack.

Satellite Image Processing for Water Detection

Water resources have a major impact in different day to day activities. Whether it is consuming water or for commercial purposes, gallons of water have been used all over the world. In order to use the resource to the fullest, it should be planned properly and should have effective water management techniques. Satellite image processing is one of the most effective ways of detecting water on the earth’s surface. By receiving the images from the satellite, we will be able to easily detect water. But, due to minor effects, we may face difficulties in differentiating the characteristics of water. For example, when there is a shadow of tall buildings on the water surface, it will be difficult to read the image of the water body as the water surface creates a mirror reflection on it. Hence, it is important that we differentiate between water bodies and shadows. Over the years, different researchers conducted experiments to extract data on high resolution satellite images of the water bodies. The main objective of the paper is to look at the various approaches to extract information from different satellite images using satellite image processing.

Diseño, instalación y calibración de un bloque de lisímetros para ajustar el coeficiente de cultivo

The efficient management of water resources using techniques that improve it uses, based on knowledge of evapotranspiration are key elements for crop production. Amongst main techniques for water management, the use of drainage lysimeter installed in the field below vegetable fields may be used to quantify the amount of water needed. The aim of this work is to design, install and calibrate a set of lysimeters for adjusting crop coefficient (Kc). In the calibration of the lysimeters, it was obtained that to induce drainage in lysimeters from one to five, an over-irrigation of 25% of the field capacity was needed, while the rest needed 50%. With lysimeters built the physical characteristic of soil could be simulated in this study.

Development of green energy based micro-sprinkler irrigation system for small holdings of SAT region

The Indian agriculture in the region of semi-arid tropics (SAT), characterized by small holders, small water harvesting and recycling system assumes a significant potential to sustain agricultural productivity by providing supplemental as well aslifesaving irrigation and mitigating mid-season drought. In Indian Agriculture, major energy consuming activities include on-farm water management. Efficient and cost-effective irrigation system matching the small-scale water harvesting and storage, are anot available in this region. In view of this, a carry-and-irrigate type micro-sprinkler irrigation system was designed and developedin order to achieve the holistic utilization of water resources and niche-potential of solar energy and gravity. The performance was measured on various parameters of application rate, Christiansen uniformity coefficient and pattern efficiency and were quantified as 14.2 mm/h, 91.3% and 89.01% respectively. The develop irrigation system qualified the performance criteria as standardized by ASAE, 1996. Given the characteristics of low cost and portability, it can considerably substantiate the vegetable production at household scale. Though, this system is developed exclusively for the location representing typical dryland agriculture of India, it can be easily and effectively replicated in other part of the world having similar agro-ecosystem. This simple water management technique utilizing the niche potential of gravity and solar energy can significantly contribute to the various objectives of sustainable development goal.

Water, Energy and Food Nexus: Policy Relevance and Challenges

Connections between water, food, and energy are at the center of long-term economic and environmental development and protection. Water, energy and food are the keys to economic input and a necessary component of economic progress. The adoption of water management policies and techniques that support the sustainable use of resources while promoting economic growth is becoming an important concern, particularly in countries where water and food scarcity are critical or problematic. This study aimed at evaluating Water, Energy and Food Nexus (WEF), and as well as challenges of its implementation. This study looked at the articles that were published on WEF nexus between 2015 and 2021 acquired from the Scopus database, focusing on gaps and implementations. I searched for relevant key terms in the database and the search found hundreds of articles on WEF, of which 28 articles were relevant to the scope of the study and these articles were downloaded as BibTeX file for the analysis and the analysis was done using R programming. A number of insights and implications were identified based on the analyses of the findings of the reviewed research in order to increase the policy relevance and overall implementation of the WEF nexus by public policy and decision-making institutions. To boost uptake of the findings, the study gives an outline of the primary constraints and challenges that restrict the policy relevance of the WEF nexus.

Numerical simulation on effect of irrigation conditions on water temperature distribution in a paddy field

Water management methods regulate water temperature in paddy fields, which affects rice growth and the environment. To understand the effect of irrigation conditions on water temperature in a paddy field, water temperature distribution under 42 different irrigation models including the use of ICT water management, which enables remote and automatic irrigation, was simulated using a physical model of heat balance. The following results were obtained: (1) Irrigation water temperature had a more significant effect on paddy water temperature close to the inlet. As the distance from the inlet increased, the water temperature converged to an equilibrium, which was determined by meteorological conditions and changes in water depth. (2) Increasing the irrigation rate with higher irrigation water amount increased the extent and magnitude of the effects of the irrigation water temperature. (3) When total irrigation water amount was the same, increasing the irrigation rate decreased the time-averaged temperature gradient effect over time across the paddy field. (4) Irrigation during the lowest and highest paddy water temperatures effectively decreased and increased the equilibrium water temperature, respectively. The results indicate that irrigation management can be used to alter and control water temperature in paddy fields, and showed the potential of ICT water management in enhancing the effect of water management in paddy fields. Our results demonstrated that a numerical simulation using a physical model for water temperature distribution is useful for revealing effective water management techniques under various irrigation methods and meteorological conditions.

Role of Courts in Ensuring Water Justice in India: Brasília Declaration on Water Justice and Beyond

Water being a scarce resource, questions of its allocation and distribution, coupled with concerns of its depletion have troubled policy makers, legislators, and judges alike. While, over the years there has been significant development on the discussion surrounding the rights-duty paradigm of water resources, by establishing the obligation of states, discussion surrounding a certain value-based approach to guide the minds of important stakeholders in creating and enforcing policy has gained far less traction comparatively. It is in this context that this paper explores an alternative justice-based approach to water, drawing from the works of Amartya Sen on capabilities and more so the Brasilia Declaration of Judges on water justice and the various principles. This paper explores how judges can incorporate such an approach through their judgements. The paper also attempts to shift the focus from the hitherto considerations of an anthropocentric and economic nature that have governed water policy and adjudication, and further elaborates upon water as inherently a public good and an environmental necessity and the need for bolstering water management techniques on these grounds.

AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN MENA REGION FACING CLIMATIC CHALLENGES AND WATER SCARCITY

Location of Tunisia between the Mediterranean and the Sahara, is an arid country on a major part of its territory. This aridity combined with variability Mediterranean climate makes water a resource both scarce and irregularly distributed in time and space. Tunisia is classified by international organizations as being among the least endowed with groundwater resources countries in the Mediterranean basin. To improve modernization policy in the agriculture sector in Tunisia, essential factors for saving water and for a sustainable development must be followed as providing farmers with the technology they need to maximize the efficiency and rational use of water to optimize the use of water in agriculture. The subsurface irrigation has several advantages in terms of saving the amount of water in a sustainable development that aims to protection of groundwater. The aim of the contrasting water management techniques described in this paper is to minimize spatio-temporal losses. Subsurface irrigation can increase stores water in the root zone, allows limiting losses by evaporation and percolation. It also helps reduce weed growth. Then, we have carried out studies on the following irrigation systems: subsurface drip irrigation system (SDI) and Buried diffusers (BD). The studies consisted of monitoring the water saving of each of these techniques as well as their effects on the profitability of different crops. For example, SDI was used for two treatments full irrigation (T1) and deficit irrigation with 50% of crop Evapotranspiration (T2). Soil water content (SWC) variation was more important at the end of the season due to root uptake and hard climatic condition, treatment T2 had less water stock and best water use efficiency with 10.83 kg/ha than 5.85 kg/ha for T1. While the average values of the SWC are 19.6 ± 2.68; 15 ± 3.81 and 14 ± 3.72% respectively for buried diffuser with full irrigation TD100, deficit irrigation with 50 TD50 and deficit irrigation with 25% TD25.

Effect of Performance of Water Stashes Irrigation Approaches on Selected Species of Plant’s Water Productivity in Urban Rooftop Agriculture with Respect to Climate Change

Urbanization and population growth have led to urban areas with a substantial concrete surface compared to adjacent rural areas, creating challenges regarding fresh food, water security, and the need for agricultural land. Climate change affects the rainfall pattern and ground water in urban areas, so the gradual growth of urban rooftop agriculture (URTA) is an increasing trend for the owners of residential buildings. URTA is increasing in the form of private initiatives, but without consideration of efficient water management techniques and application of other related inputs. URTA differs substantially from traditional agriculture in terms of sunshine, thermal regime, the moisture dynamics of a concrete roof top, etc. Considering these aspects of URTA, an effective, efficient, science-based and economically viable irrigation method is necessary to popularize this approach and consequently increase the productivity of crops. With this in mind, the drip irrigation method is considered for the cultivation and determination of water productivity for selected species of plants such as the Bottle Gourd, Tomato, Chili, and Brinjal in the URTA, which was also compared to the traditional irrigation approach. This is why groundwater and green (grey and rain) water were considered as the source of irrigation during the dry season, based on the daily crop evapotranspiration and moisture content of the plant growing medium. For this reason, ET0 of the selected crops was measured using the CROPWAT 8.0 model. The results of this study revealed that the optimum irrigation water requirement of any crop in URTA is around 54% access (ETc), and 46–64% of access irrigation water is used by the traditional method compared to the drip irrigation method. The study reported that with drip irrigation with potable water, the yield was increased by 21.43–22.40% and rain and grey-water also increased yield by 31.87–33.33% compared to container and traditional pipe irrigation. It was also found that the water qualities of mixed water (grey and rainwater) are in an acceptable range limit for irrigation. As a result, urban planners, city dwellers, and researchers can formulate appropriate plans to cultivate different species of plants through this water saving irrigation method using green water, and should explore the concept of water-smart URTA technologies as organic inventions embedded in these results.

Innovative Land Arrangement in Combination with Irrigation Methods Improves the Crop and Water Productivity of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Grown with Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) under Raised and Sunken Bed Systems

The underground water and water storage reservoirs are rapidly depleting due to nominal recharging by the rainfalls making water a scarce resource for irrigation resulting in poor crop growth and production. Irrigation water application should focus on the proficient use of each drop of water. Water productivity (WP) in agriculture can be improved through crop diversification, proper land and water management techniques. Considering this, a field investigation was carried out during 2013–2014 and 2014–2015 to study the crop response of rice (Oryza sativa L.) + okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) system to land configurations and irrigation regimes. Three raised-sunken beds (RSB) having width (m) ratios of 1:3, 2:3, 3:3 and two irrigation schedules viz. continuous standing water (CSW) of 5 ± 2 cm depth and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) at 3 ± 1 days interval for rice in sunken bed were tested. Rice yield was more (4.36 and 4.89 Mg ha−1) under CSW irrigation than AWD irrespective of raised bed width. The highest okra yield was noted by 14.09 and 15.43 Mg ha−1 with AWD in 1:3 RSB systems, whereas the lowest yield was recorded in CSW 1:3 RSB systems. Rice equivalent yield (REY) was found as the maximum in AWD than CSW irrespective of raised and sunken bed configurations. The AWD in 3:3 RSB systems exhibited the highest WP of 1.02 and 1.01 kg m−3 during the first and second year of study, respectively. Wider RSB system of land configuration ratio of 3:3 saved about 40–45% of irrigation water. Such information will help in the planning of an innovative intercropping system of summer rice + okra in the field by changing the land configuration to the raised bed and sunken bed with the AWD irrigation system.

Rheological analysis of rice husk-starch suspended in water for sustainable agriculture application

Agriculture usage is one of the major consumers of freshwater resources, however the increasing over dependency on water resources needs effective water management techniques. Water scarcity is one of the main problems in agriculture sector of India where farmers need solution for effective water management with minimum initial cost and which can be implemented with traditional methods. In this study, rheological analysis of rice husk and starch suspended in water are experimentally evaluated. Rice husk was powdered for maximum particle size of 180 µm. Study has measured the viscosity for different shear rate in the range of 0.09–1500 s−1. To understand the effect of temperature study was conducted at 30 °C and 80 °C. The study is performed using the rheometer (RheolabQC), which gives the relationship between the different fluid properties at different temperatures and shear rate. Experimental study was conducted on samples containing various proportions of rice husk and corn starch in water. All the samples at 30 °C shows shear thinning behavior except starch sample, whereas at 80 °C starch also shown shear thinning behavior. Viscosity of some samples increases with increase in temperature. At 30 °C sample containing 7gm rice husk powder and 3 gm starch, shows reduction in viscosity with increase in shear rate. The results are useful to control flow rate of water along with nutrition enrichment of the soil.

PERSEPSI PETANI TERHADAP TEKNOLOGI “PANCA KELOLA” DI LAHAN RAWA BEKAS TERBAKAR (Kasus lahan gambut bekas terbakar Desa Talio Hulu Kecamatan Pandih Batu Kab. Pulang Pisau)

To understand the potential for increasing rice production on burnt peatlands, a demo farm (demonstration of grouped farming and fishing) which is a collaboration between Balittra and BRG which covers an area of 38 ha in Talio Hulu Village, Pandih Batu District, Pulang Pisau Regency, Central Kalimantan in 2020-2021. This study aims to discover the farmers' perceptions of the technology components and performance of rice cultivation technology. The activities have been carried out on farmers' land by applying “Five Management” technology include (1) water management techniques; (2) land preparation, (3) amelioration and fertilization (4) utilization of new high yielding varieties with high yield potential, and (5) integrated pest and disease control. Data were collected from 24 cooperating farmers by survey method. Primary data were collected by conducting direct interviews with farmers using a structured questionnaire. The data collected was tabulated and analyzed descriptively. The results showed that burned peatlands have the potential to increase rice production. The results showed that burned peatlands have the potential to increase rice production.. The response of farmers to the components of rice cultivation technology is positive. The five technology components that have the highest value with a value of 95.83% are (1) water regulation in paddy fields, (2) the utilization of ash and urea fertilizer in the nursery, (3) the utilization of manure and lime as ameliorant, (4) the utilization of urea fertilizer, SP-36, and NPK, and (5) the utilization of natural phosphate. The farmer's perception of the Five Management technology is positive. Economically, rice farming of the Inpara 2 variety is efficient (R/C = 1.14).

Monitoring and Analysis of Degraded Land in Rasulabad Block of Kanpur Dehat District Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques

Abstract: Land degradation is seen as a development or additional that reduces current and/or potential soil capability to produce products and goods. This implies a decline from a higher to a lower state due to a decline in land capacity, productivity, and biodiversity loss. This can be both natural and human-induced. Natural causes embody earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, avalanches, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, tornadoes, and wildfires. Whereas human-induced soil degradation results from land clearing and deforestation, inappropriate agricultural practices, improper management of industrial effluents and wastes, over-grazing, careless management of forests, surface mining, urban sprawl, and commercial/industrial development. Inappropriate agricultural practices embody excessive tillage and use of heavy machineries, excessive and unbalanced use of inorganic fertilizers, poor irrigation and water management techniques, chemical or pesticide overuse, inadequate crop residue and organic carbon inputs, and poor crop cycle planning. Some underlying social causes of soil degradation in Asian nation square measure land shortage, decline in per capita land handiness, economic pressure onto land, land occupancy, poverty, and population increase.. The aim of the current study is to prepare baseline data to combat land degradation and conserve land resources in an economical and efficient manner. To assess land degradation with the help of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) – in Rasulabad Block of Kanpur Dehat district, Uttar Pradesh, different levels of analysis were performed to estimate the extent of land. Degradation to assess saline or salt-free soils and calcareous or sodium soils and to match this data with satellite studies. The spatial variability of these soil parameters was shown in soil maps created in a GIS environment. A temporary study of the 2017 and 2021 Sentinel satellite datasets was done to find the parameters that are responsible for land degradation. The severity of land degradation was calculable quantitatively by analyzing the physico-chemical parameters within the laboratory to see salinity and sodicity of soils and further correlating them with satellite-based studies. The pH varied between 7.1 and 8.2, electrical conductivity (EC) between 0.23 and 0.6 miliSiemens/m and the methyl orange or total alkalinity between 0.095 and 0.225 (HCO3 ) gL-1 as CaCO3. The spatial variability in these soil parameters was pictured through soil maps generated in a GIS environment with the help of IDW Interpolation. The results revealed that the soil in the study area was exposed to salt intrusion, most of the soil samples of the study area were slightly or moderately saline with a few salt-free sites. Moreover, the majority of the soil samples were calcareous and a few samples were alkaline or sodic in nature. Keyword: Land degradation, Sodic land, Saline land, GIS, IDW Interpolation.

Soil and water conservation management on hill slopes in southwest Ethiopia. II. Modeling effects of soil bunds on surface runoff and maize yield using AquaCrop

On the cultivated slopes of the highlands of southwest Ethiopia, soil degradation due to water erosion is a challenge for crop production. To limit surface runoff and soil erosion, soil bunds often in combination with trenches, constructed along contour lines, are common. In addition to the interception of surface runoff, soil bunds may affect crop yield. Here, we evaluate effect of soil bunds on surface runoff and maize yield, using FAO's AquaCrop model, calibrated based on field experiments in the Bokole-Karetha watershed, in SW Ethiopia. Experiments were conducted in 2018 and 2019 on three neighboring fields, each comprising plots in triplicate without and with soil bunds. Experimental data from 2018 to 2019, which were average and above average with respect to rainfall, indicate that water availability was sufficient or even in excess for maize production. Soil bunds significantly (p < 0.05) reduced surface runoff, but maize yield did not differ significantly. In plots without soil bunds, the AquaCrop model described surface runoff satisfactorily after slight adjustment of the curve number (related to infiltration capacity) in one of the three fields. Maize yields were reproduced adequately after calibrating soil fertility and adjusting water productivity. After calibration and validation, the AquaCrop model was used to hindcast surface runoff and grain yield from 1999 to 2017, given available climatic data for the region. Hindcasts show that maize yield in the Bokole-Karetha watershed, with its relatively high rainfall, is not significantly affected by rainfall in two of the three fields. In the third field maize yield decreases slightly, but significantly (p < 0.05) with rainfall. In the short run, yield differences between plots with and without soil bunds are not significant. However, eventually high surface runoff from plots without soil bunds are expected to result in unsustainable crop production, due to significant erosion and degradation of the often nutrient-poor soils. Implementation of soil and water management techniques, combined with fertilization, are important to prevent soil degradation and nutrient stress on sloping land.

A Review on Unmanned Crop Detection Techniques

The programmed water system frameworks are received as of late to provide support to the agriculturists in turn reducing the manpower and improving cost effective techniques. In this paper, a detailed survey is done analysing the crop detection techniques which are in existence. This paper provides an insight study on pH level monitoring in the soil, water and soil nutrients management techniques, temperature and humidity measurement, surveillance of crop field and other smart irrigation techniques utilized for monitoring the farmland. This paper discusses about the effective methodology with enhanced technique that could be implemented in future to attain better performance and user-friendly for the farmers.

IMPACT OF TRAINING ON THE AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE ON IMPROVED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES IN RED GRAM AMONG FARMERS

The training of farmers is a critical input for the rapid transfer of agricultural technologies. The present rate of agricultural production can be doubled if the available technologies are brought to bear with the production process and programmes focusing more and more on transferring our new technologies away from the confines of laboratories and research institutions to the farmers and make them more result and work oriented. In this context, training plays an important role to the farming community in boosting their farm production. Training for the farmer proved to be a significant input in accelerating our farm production. The present study was undertaken in the three blocks of the Madurai District of Tamil Nadu , 120 farmers were selected for the study. These farmers were trained at KVK in different aspects of Red gram production technologies. A knowledge test was developed to ascertain the knowledge of farmers on various aspects of Red gram cultivation technologies. The result exhibits that majority of the respondents were in middle age group, had middle school education, The findings of the study revealed that very few farmers were aware of the new technologies like redgram transplanting, after attending training programme they have got awareness on seed treatment with biofertilizer, weed management, water management techniques (74.00%), respectively and there was an increase in knowledge gain by the farmers after attending the training programme.