Water Licenses Research Articles

Effects of climate variability and change on groundwater impacts of forestry plantations

AbstractQuantifying water use of various water consumers is an essential part of sustainable water management. Annual evapotranspiration (ET) of plantation forests often exceeds that of dryland agriculture, which in South Africa and South Australia has resulted in restrictions on plantation development. In the latter case, water licences are issued to commercial forestry plantations to account for higher ET compared to dryland pasture. Unlike irrigated crops, it is not practicable to measure water use of plantations directly and so in South Australia a set of ‘deemed’ average water use rates has been applied since 2013, based on species and depth to groundwater. Since South Australia's ‘deemed’ rates were calculated, additional plot‐scale measurements of annual ET from plantations <2 years old and post‐canopy closure have been used to quantify various components of ET. This has enabled development of two empirical ET models for plantations in South Australia's Lower Limestone Coast, and facilitated an advanced understanding of the effect of plantations on hydrological processes, particularly in relation to groundwater use. In this study, we applied these models to estimate rotation‐averaged annual ET and net groundwater impacts (net groundwater extraction plus recharge reduction compared to pasture) of plantations, driven by climate and groundwater depth, for comparison with the deemed rates. The modelling suggests that the groundwater impacts of plantations vary in space and time and that the deemed rates over‐estimate these impacts, on average. Accounting for variation in the effects of climate on the various components of ET, both spatially and temporally, may allow for more flexible rules for water resource allocation than using any simple, rule‐of‐thumb approach.

Canada Source Watershed Polygons (Can-SWaP): A dataset for the protection of Canada’s municipal water supply

Over 80% of municipal (i.e., excluding industrial and agricultural) water use in Canada comes from streams, lakes, and reservoirs. These freshwater bodies and their catchments require adequate protection to secure drinking water supply for Canadians. Canada, like most countries, lacks a consolidated national dataset of municipal catchments, arguably due to gaps in data availability. Against this backdrop, we present the Canada Source Watershed Polygons dataset, or Can-SWaP. Can-SWaP was created using point locations of more than 3,300 municipal water licences defining rights to surface water withdrawal. Where possible, the resulting 1,574 catchments were assessed for accuracy in spatial coverage against provincial and local datasets. Each watershed in Can-SWaP has an estimated water volume used for municipal water purposes derived from licencing data, and several variables from RiverATLAS for investigating the integrity of surface drinking water sources in Canada. Furthermore, basing our method on the HydroSHEDS suite of global products offers a robust framework for the production of other national datasets following an established international standard.

Sustainable Water in Mining? The Importance of Traditional Owner Involvement in Commercial Water Use and Management in the Pilbara Region of Western Australia

AbstractThe mining industry is a significant water user, an issue that gains a particular prominence in arid zone mining regions, such as the Pilbara region in Western Australia (WA). Mining companies extract vast amounts of water from the groundwater aquifers to access orebodies and to dewater the mine pits. Much of this water is dumped in creeks, injected back into the aquifer downstream or used in mining processing. There is increased awareness from community members for sustainable water use in mining beyond life of mine, and the emergence of Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) principles in the mining and metals sector signals a shift towards recognizing the importance of water stewardship. Much of the land subject to dewatering in the Pilbara is also subject to native title determinations. For Traditional Owners, important cultural values are associated with water. However, water is not adequately covered in native title, especially in relation to commercial use. We argue that Traditional Owner involvement in design and management of the use of excess water from a mining proponent's water licence (dewatering) can assist in sustainable use of groundwater, as well as provide opportunities in social and economic enterprises. As a provocation style piece, this paper is based on secondary literature, rather than ethnographic data. It explores the political and regulatory landscape of mine dewatering and outlines the limitations that have existed historically and currently and which inhibit Traditional Owners to participate in water management or commercial water interests. We also provide a high‐level analysis of several mining proponents' public policy commitments to water stewardship to assess the sustainable use of water which involves stakeholders such as Traditional Owners in water decision‐making. Finally, we identify possible opportunities and provide some recommendations, for water futures in this dry region where iron ore mining and gas extraction, already massive, are expanding further.

Alternative method for determining available winter water volumes from lakes to support small-scale projects

Abstract In Canada's Northwest Territories (NT), industrial activities conducted during the winter, such as ice road construction and exploratory drilling, require the use of water from ice-covered water bodies. Withdrawal in excess of 10% of available under-ice volume can threaten fish habitat or other users. The Land and Water Boards (LWBs) of the Mackenzie Valley require water licences for water withdrawal beyond regulated thresholds. Applicants must provide information including identification and location of proposed water sources, timing and proposed volume of water and winter water withdrawal must be limited to <10% of available volume to protect fish habitat under the ice. Many applicants are at early project stages and the necessary information on bathymetry and volumes of water is not readily available or requires expertise and effort that may not be feasible at the early stages of smaller projects. This paper describes the alternative method for determining available winter water volumes from lakes to support small-scale projects. A simple formula of ‘allowable volume (m3) = surface area (m2) * 0.1 m’ was developed and tested to provide a conservative estimate of under-ice volumes from easily available data which is protective in spite of uncertainties inherent in limited data.

Fine scale 20‐year timeseries of plantation forest evapotranspiration for the lower limestone coast

AbstractCommercial plantation forestry is a vital industry worldwide, providing natural resources for humans and playing an important role in carbon sequestration. Historically, impacts of plantation development to natural resources such as surface and groundwater was not considered, however demand for water and drying climates has focussed attention on sustainable water use and extraction. The Lower Limestone Coast region of south‐east South Australia has an extensive softwood plantation estate. The region is characterised by minimal surface water and substantial, fresh karstic groundwater resources, often <6 m below ground. Rapid expansion over shallow groundwater of the plantation hardwood estate from 2000, prompted concern about impacts of deep‐rooted plantations on water resources and notably contracting wetlands. To quantify plantation estate water use, an extensive evapotranspiration (ET) field study (1999–2008) identified plantation areas with <6 m to groundwater as groundwater users, leading to water policy whereby plantations are considered licenced water users. To enable plantation expansion in the region, fine resolution, broadscale ET data is required to ensure optimum use of water licences in the forest industry and account for plantation groundwater extraction. As continual field studies are not feasible, this 20‐year, monthly 30 m ET dataset for the region was developed to improve estimates of plantation water use, enabling improved, dynamic estimates of groundwater extraction. The dataset was developed using 21 long‐term field sites where ET was derived based on field measured transpiration, soil moisture, canopy interaction and rainfall data. Region specific field ET was combined with machine learning and additional remote sensing layers to estimate monthly ET (R2 = 0.86) across the plantation estate, improving on a national remote sensing ET product. Currently, groundwater extraction is accounted for via modelling which excludes dynamic changes in plantation groundwater extraction, limiting understanding of the hydrological processes influencing available water resources and potentially impeding economic growth.

Integrated modelling to assess the impacts of water stress in a transboundary river basin: Bridging local-scale water resource operations to a river basin economy

In this study, we develop a hydro-economic modelling framework for river-basin scales by integrating a water resources system model and an economic model. This framework allows for the representation of both local-scale features, such as reservoirs, diversions, and water licenses and priorities, and regional- and provincial-scale features, such as cross-sectoral and inter-regional connectedness and trade flows. This framework is able to: (a) represent nonlinearities and interactions that cannot be represented by either of typical water resources or economic models; (b) analyze the sensitivity of macro-scale economy to different local water management decisions (called ‘decision levers’ herein); and (c) identify water allocation strategies that are economically sound across sectors and regions. This integrated model is applied to the multi-jurisdictional Saskatchewan River Basin in Western Canada. Our findings reveal that an economically optimal water allocation strategy can mitigate the economic losses of water stress up to 80% compared to the existing water allocation strategy. We draw lessons from our analysis and discuss how integrated inter-regional hydro-economic modelling can benefit vulnerability assessment and robust decision making.

The Gahcho Kué Diamond Mine: A Case Study in Intergovernmental Environmental Management

The Gahcho Kué Diamond Mine is an operating mine in the Northwest Territories, Canada. Due to requirements defined in law, the mine required several authorizations for construction and operation, including both federal and territorial authorizations. Throughout the construction and operation of the diamond mine, instances occurred when the proponent, De Beers Canada Inc., raised objections about applying conditions in the water licence to areas that were authorized by Fisheries and Oceans Canada. As well, there have been ongoing discussions between various parties, including those with regulatory mandates, regarding requirements and jurisdiction related to site closure planning. This article outlines the discussions that have occurred to date, detailing the areas of ambiguity regarding projects that are authorized under multiple pieces of legislation. Lessons learned, as well as recommendations to address some of these issues, are provided.

The social learning potential of participatory water valuation workshops: A case study in Tasmania, Australia

AbstractParticipatory water valuation workshops are useful for their valuation outcomes, but can they also foster social learning? Social learning involves changes in understanding through social interactions between actors, which go beyond the individual to become situated within wider social units. Participatory water valuation workshops involve dialoguing about knowledge, perspectives, and preferences, which may be conducive to social learning. In this paper, we assess the social learning potential of a participatory valuation workshop, based on a case study in Tasmania, where farmers, water managers, and a policy maker shared their personal perspectives on the past, current and future values of irrigation water. To assess the social learning potential of a single participatory valuation workshop, we analyzed drivers—that is, factors positively influencing social learning—and outcomes—that is, indications that social learning occurred. Data were collected through an exit survey, in‐workshop reflections and semistructured interviews following 3 weeks and 6 months after the actual workshop. The results indicate that the workshop provided the drivers for social learning to occur. In addition, participants indicated to have learned from and with others, and that the workshop provided improved and extended networks. According to the participants, the workshop led to a shared concern about increasing prices for water licences and induced substantive outcomes related to the use, management, and governance of irrigation water. We conclude that participatory valuation workshops, such as the one analyzed here, can foster social learning.

The Biological Assessment and Rehabilitation of the World's Rivers: An Overview.

The biological assessment of rivers i.e., their assessment through use of aquatic assemblages, integrates the effects of multiple-stressors on these systems over time and is essential to evaluate ecosystem condition and establish recovery measures. It has been undertaken in many countries since the 1990s, but not globally. And where national or multi-national monitoring networks have gathered large amounts of data, the poor water body classifications have not necessarily resulted in the rehabilitation of rivers. Thus, here we aimed to identify major gaps in the biological assessment and rehabilitation of rivers worldwide by focusing on the best examples in Asia, Europe, Oceania, and North, Central, and South America. Our study showed that it is not possible so far to draw a world map of the ecological quality of rivers. Biological assessment of rivers and streams is only implemented officially nation-wide and regularly in the European Union, Japan, Republic of Korea, South Africa, and the USA. In Australia, Canada, China, New Zealand, and Singapore it has been implemented officially at the state/province level (in some cases using common protocols) or in major catchments or even only once at the national level to define reference conditions (Australia). In other cases, biological monitoring is driven by a specific problem, impact assessments, water licenses, or the need to rehabilitate a river or a river section (as in Brazil, South Korea, China, Canada, Japan, Australia). In some countries monitoring programs have only been explored by research teams mostly at the catchment or local level (e.g., Brazil, Mexico, Chile, China, India, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam) or implemented by citizen science groups (e.g., Southern Africa, Gambia, East Africa, Australia, Brazil, Canada). The existing large-extent assessments show a striking loss of biodiversity in the last 2–3 decades in Japanese and New Zealand rivers (e.g., 42% and 70% of fish species threatened or endangered, respectively). A poor condition (below Good condition) exists in 25% of South Korean rivers, half of the European water bodies, and 44% of USA rivers, while in Australia 30% of the reaches sampled were significantly impaired in 2006. Regarding river rehabilitation, the greatest implementation has occurred in North America, Australia, Northern Europe, Japan, Singapore, and the Republic of Korea. Most rehabilitation measures have been related to improving water quality and river connectivity for fish or the improvement of riparian vegetation. The limited extent of most rehabilitation measures (i.e., not considering the entire catchment) often constrains the improvement of biological condition. Yet, many rehabilitation projects also lack pre-and/or post-monitoring of ecological condition, which prevents assessing the success and shortcomings of the recovery measures. Economic constraints are the most cited limitation for implementing monitoring programs and rehabilitation actions, followed by technical limitations, limited knowledge of the fauna and flora and their life-history traits (especially in Africa, South America and Mexico), and poor awareness by decision-makers. On the other hand, citizen involvement is recognized as key to the success and sustainability of rehabilitation projects. Thus, establishing rehabilitation needs, defining clear goals, tracking progress towards achieving them, and involving local populations and stakeholders are key recommendations for rehabilitation projects (Table 1). Large-extent and long-term monitoring programs are also essential to provide a realistic overview of the condition of rivers worldwide. Soon, the use of DNA biological samples and eDNA to investigate aquatic diversity could contribute to reducing costs and thus increase monitoring efforts and a more complete assessment of biodiversity. Finally, we propose developing transcontinental teams to elaborate and improve technical guidelines for implementing biological monitoring programs and river rehabilitation and establishing common financial and technical frameworks for managing international catchments. We also recommend providing such expert teams through the United Nations Environment Program to aid the extension of biomonitoring, bioassessment, and river rehabilitation knowledge globally.

Groundwater extraction on the goldfields of Victoria, Australia

Groundwater supply systems constructed by gold miners in Victoria during the nineteenth century were highly significant in the historical development of water law and water licensing in Australia. Alluvial gold mining required large volumes of water to separate gold from washdirt, but surface flows often failed in seasonally dry conditions. Drought in the mid-1860s prompted miners on the Ovens goldfield in north-east Victoria to exploit groundwater to increase supplies, despite limited scientific understanding of this resource at the time. Analysis of historical plans held by Public Records Office Victoria has revealed numerous ‘source of supply’ tunnels dug by miners to extract groundwater in the area. By the early 1880s, miners were using up to 31 ML of groundwater per day, with much of the water transferred between creek and river catchments. These activities represent an early, large-scale and significant intervention in the hydrogeological environment, several decades prior to economic development of the Great Artesian Basin in northern Australia. Understanding the nature and scale of groundwater use in this period provides vital social and historical context for modern debates about groundwater modelling, extraction and management.

Integrated water resources management and modeling: A case study of Bow river basin, Canada

Abstract This paper introduces a comprehensive modeling framework for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). The model incorporates water demands, allocation, and uses under various climate, population, and economic scenarios as well as management strategies. Model outputs include crop yields, municipal water use, power generation, recreational reservoir uses, and environmental flows. Further, a novel indicator integrates many key model outputs for social, economic, and environmental assessment based on the basin-scale water balance, and provides a comprehensive and clear representation of basin conditions to improve the understanding of IWRM trade-offs. When applied to the Bow River Basin, Canada, as a practical example, this Bow River Integrated Model (BRIM) revealed through a set of modeling scenarios that (1) only the industrial demands exceeded the water license in the high-water demand and reference scenarios due to population growth and economic development; (2) increased cooling tower shares for thermal power plants was the most effective policy in managing industrial demand; and (3) the new indicator reflected both basin-scale conditions and sectoral water stresses. Finally, model results from three gaming scenarios showed socio-economic and environmental trade-offs clearly, providing users with guidance in developing a comprehensive view of basin-scale water security, and hands-on experience to support IWRM. Therefore, the modeling framework and novel indicator can improve an understanding of IWRM concepts and strategic trade-offs in efforts towards basin water sustainability.

Diagnóstico de outorgas de captação e lançamento de efluentes no Paraná e impactos dos usos insignificantes

The granting license of water resources uses expresses the conditions for the use of water resources under a quantitative and qualitative control of water and sustainable development. Some uses are characterized as insignificant, and are exempted from water license application (riparian water right). In Parana State, our study area, the exemptions are granted to the uses with flow rates lower than or equal to 1,8m³/h. Based on the public data of the Instituto das Aguas do Parana, we did a diagnosis of those licenses and exemptions uses for the whole state and its larger basins. The diagnosis represents a good economic indicator, characterizing the different water uses in each region of Parana. The insignificant uses corresponds on average to less than 3% of the flow rate in small basins. Therefore, the water resources management in Parana State is adequate considering the insignificant uses exempted from license and do not represent a threat to the quality and availability of the water resources.

Instrumenty administracyjne polskiej polityki ekologicznej – wybrane aspekty

<p>Przedmiotem podjętej w opracowaniu analizy były instrumenty administracyjne wykorzystywane w procesie realizacji polityki ekologicznej. Szczególną uwagę zwrócono na rolę i znaczenie pozwoleń emisyjnych, pozwoleń zintegrowanych, wodnoprawnych oraz na funkcjonujący system zarządzania środowiskiem( EMAS). Istotną kwestią, poddaną analizie z punktu widzenia administracji publicznej, była instytucja związana z przeprowadzaniem ocen oddziaływania na środowisko, w tym w szczególności ocen o charakterze strategicznym.</p>

Identifying Climate and Human Impact Trends in Streamflow: A Case Study in Uruguay

Land use change is an important driver of trends in streamflow. However, the effects are often difficult to disentangle from climate effects. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that trends in streamflow can be identified by analysing residuals of rainfall-runoff simulations using a Generalized Additive Mixed Model. This assumes that the rainfall-runoff model removes the average climate forcing from streamflow. The case study involves the Santa Lucía river (Uruguay), the GR4J rainfall-runoff model, three nested catchments ranging from 690 to 4900 km 2 and 35 years of observations (1981–2016). Two exogenous variables were considered to influence the streamflow. Using satellite data, growth in forest cover was identified, while the growth in water licenses was obtained from the water authority. Depending on the catchment, effects of land use change differ, with the largest catchment most impacted by afforestation, while the middle size catchment was more influenced by the growth in water licenses.

Water governance impacts on water adequacy in smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa

AbstractWater adequacy is central to maximised agricultural production in irrigation schemes. Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (SISs) are designed to distribute water efficiently, adequately and equitably. Water governance, defined as the institutions, processes, procedures, rules and regulations involved in water management, plays an important role in water allocation and subsequently water adequacy. The intersectoral institutions involved in water governance in SISs, i.e., government, Water User Associations (WUAs), Irrigation Management Committees (IMCs) and traditional authorities, interact to formulate and design policies for running SISs. However, multilevel interaction amongst the active stakeholders at multiple levels shapes policy and underlies SIS performance. This research aimed to investigate the impacts water governance had on adequacy of water in irrigation schemes and was premised on the hypothesis that governance had no effect on water adequacy. Water adequacy describes water supply relative to demand. Adequacy indicates whether the water delivery system supplies the required amount to a section in the irrigation scheme over a period of time (daily, monthly or seasonally). Two irrigation schemes, the Mooi-River Irrigation Scheme (MRIS) and Tugela Ferry Irrigation Scheme (TFIS) were used as case studies. A descriptive analysis showed that 86% of the farmers in the TFIS had adequate water, whereas 24% had water adequacy in the MRIS. A Binary Logit model was employed to investigate the factors that influence water adequacy among irrigators. The regression model identified eight statistically significant factors that influenced water adequacy: the irrigation scheme, location of plot within the scheme, training in water management, training in irrigation, SIS irrigators' knowledge about the government's aims, availability of water licences, payment of water fees and satisfaction with the irrigation schedule. The study concluded that governance factors had influence on water adequacy in the selected SISs. The implication is that stakeholders should make irrigators aware of government Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) policy and strategies. The study recommends that the SISs introduce rules, procedures and protocols to support irrigators to enhance scheme governance and lead to the realisation of government policies.

A dam tale

PurposeIn 1950, the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan) was given a perpetual water license for a large section of Northern British Columbia, Canada. The benefit to the original owner of the water rights, the Province of British Columbia, was economic and population growth. The purpose of this paper is to follow the contestation over these rights from 1948 to 2016.Design/methodology/approachAn institutional logics perspective was taken to analyze the main actors and how their relative power (dominant versus fringe) changed in the institutional field. Archival data and selected interviews were mapped to institutional logics across three time periods.FindingsIn the inter-temporal setting, many of the actors that were fringe in 1950 became more dominant by 2016. For example, the local indigenous peoples, the Cheslatta Carrier First Nation, were flooded off their land to make way for Alcan’s dam. They ended up as very powerful players in the institutional field. The perpetual rights given to Alcan made it a dominant actor across all time periods, despite changes in the logics of the institutional field.Research limitations/implicationsA single case was studied; other comparative settings should be explored to contrast and compare. The data were primarily archival, supplemented by only three interviews of those related to the case study. This case study is also one where water rights were privatized in perpetuity, which may not be the case in other settings.Practical implicationsCurrent governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should use this case to understand the long-term effects of resource policy decisions.Social implicationsThe building of large dams has been, and continues to be, used worldwide to provide power to create economic growth. Our setting provides insight into the long-term societal outcomes of using water rights in this way.Originality/valueThis is an original use of institutional logics around a natural resource-based institutional field. Using institutional logics in a multi-period setting, focusing on the power relations of the key actors, and how they can be constrained by historical forces, provides a contribution to the literature.

Landscape Based Agricultural Water Demand Modeling—A Tool for Water Management Decision Making in British Columbia, Canada

Regional water managers face challenges managing water demand and supply in response to climate change. In British Columbia (BC), less than 5% of the total land surface is suitable for cultivation and consequently, urban development and agriculture co-exist on lower elevation sites and compete for water. Surface and ground water supply all uses, affecting in-stream habitats and aquifer levels. To assess water needs, we used a GIS-based water demand model for agricultural water use, with layers for detailed land use, soils, a digital elevation model, sub-basins, aquifers, and socio-political jurisdictional boundaries. The model was driven by gridded daily minimum and maximum temperatures and precipitation at a 500m spatial resolution using historical data (1961-2010) and downscaled climate scenarios (1961-2100) derived from five CMIP5 climate models under two greenhouse gas concentration scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). Two case studies were examined: 1. Changes in water use were determined for scenarios of climate change and expanded cropping within the BC Agricultural Land Reserve for 17 agricultural regions. Potential increases in irrigation water demand (IWD) in response to climate change ranged from 21-58% and 30-114% under low and high emissions scenarios respectively. Land use change scenarios resulted in very large potential increases in water demand, up to 2400%. Output from this work forms the basis for a web-based agricultural water licence calculator. 2. Effects of crop production systems on IWD were examined in the Okanagan region. Combinations of pasture and forage crops with inefficient irrigation systems were most vulnerable to drought as indicated by two indices: relative vulnerability index (IWD/ETo) and allocation vulnerability index (IWD/Maximum annual water allocation). In drought years, up to 70% of the irrigated area was vulnerable. A comparison of detailed land use surveys made in 2006 and 2014 indicated a large shift to highly efficient irrigation systems in the horticultural sector from 38% to 68% of the irrigated acreage. Similar shifts for other agricultural sectors may require financial support. On-going development of regional drought management will require collaborative decision making by water suppliers and users.

Integrated science informs forest and water allocation policies in the South East of Australia

Groundwater-dependent ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to groundwater decline. The South East of South Australia has experienced considerable hydrological change due to drainage, clearance of native vegetation, irrigated agriculture, and forestry. Recent hardwood plantings in the Limestone Coast Prescribed Wells Area (PWA) have increased considerably since 2000, coincident with groundwater decline; however, the introduction of hardwood plantations coincided with a period of lower than average rainfall. Given the economic implications of modifying water allocation policy based on apparent anthropogenic causes, establishing the contributions to the observed declines in groundwater level was necessary. The water balance shows a net gain in water across the entire Lower Limestone Coast Prescribed Wells Area, yet sites with forestry land use show the water table has been declining at a rate up to 0.7 m yr−1 since 2004, whereas no long-term change has occurred in the water table depth at adjacent pasture sites. Forested areas have 4050 wetlands at risk with groundwater decline >0.3 m yr−1, covering a total wetland area of of 212 km2. A series of 15 policy scenarios were simulated using a groundwater flow model to examine how climate, land use, and particularly forestry would impact groundwater, with an imperative to enact policy to protect remaining wetlands. Water allocation policy accounted for groundwater extraction for irrigated agriculture, but other activities, such as forestry, were not considered in water allocation even though they were found to be a major water user. Following this study, the South Australian Government amended its Natural Resources Management act to stipulate that forestry must have a water licence and a water allocation to account for water used by the forest.

Gender Relations, Livelihood Strategies, Water Policies and Structural Adjustment in the Australian Dairy Industry

AbstractConcerns about water scarcity and consequent environmental impacts are driving major structural adjustment in the Australian irrigated dairy industry. This has resulted in government policy initiatives including water licence buybacks and grant schemes to improve water use efficiency. One consequence is the loss of many small farms and the development of larger technologically efficient farms with altered access to irrigation water. In farm families, who dominate the dairy industry, livelihood strategies, labour demands and the boundaries between traditional female and male spheres of labour are changing. We present findings from an Australian Research Council funded project examining the impacts of these changes on dairy families in the Murray Dairy region. We note that reshaped livelihood strategies and increased labour demands are further entrenching traditional gender relations and that labour is being re‐allocated in highly gendered ways. We note a ‘farmer‐manager’ role is evolving amongst male dairy farmers and a critical but less public role comprising significant input to labour tasks is evident amongst women on larger farms. Drawing on interviews with couples, most of whom were interviewed separately, we examine how gendered livelihood strategies are being reshaped at the same time as the significant contributions of women are being obscured.

Impact of water allocation strategies to manage groundwater resources in Western Australia: Equity and efficiency considerations

In many parts of the world groundwater is being depleting at an alarming rate. Where groundwater extraction is licenced, regulators often respond to resource depletion by reducing all individual licences by a fixed proportion. This approach can be effective in achieving a reduction in the volume of water extracted, but the approach is not efficient. In water resource management the issue of the equity-efficiency trade-off has been explored in a number of contexts, but not in the context of allocation from a groundwater system. To contribute to this knowledge gap we conduct an empirical case study for Western Australia’s most important groundwater system: the Gnangara Groundwater System (GGS). Resource depletion is a serious issue for the GGS, and substantial reductions in groundwater extraction are required to stabilise the system. Using an individual-based farm optimization model we study both the overall impact and the distributional impact of a fixed percentage water allocation cut to horticulture sector licence holders. The model is parameterised using water licence specific data on farm area and water allocation. The modelling shows that much of the impact of water allocation reductions can be mitigated through changing the cropping mix and the irrigation technology used. The modelling also shows that the scope for gains through the aggregation of holdings into larger farms is much greater than the potential losses due to water allocation reductions. The impact of water allocation cuts is also shown to impact large farms more than small farms. For example, the expected loss in net revenue per ha for a 10-ha farm is around three times the expected loss per ha for a 1-ha farm; and the expected loss per ha for a 25-ha farm is around five times the expected loss per ha for a 1-ha farm.