Water Leakage Research Articles

Assessing the dynamic performance of water companies through the lens of service quality

The measurement of performance within the water industry holds significant importance for policymakers, as it can help guide decision-making for future development and management initiatives. In this study, we apply data envelopment analysis (DEA) cross-efficiency techniques to evaluate the productivity change of the Chilean water industry during the years 2010–2018. Water leakage and unplanned interruptions are included in the analysis as quality of service variables. Moreover, we use cluster analysis and regression techniques to better understand what drives productivity change of water companies. The results indicate that the Chilean water industry is characterized by considerable high levels of inefficiency and low levels of productivity change. This is due to the existence of technical regress whereas gains in efficiency were small. Concessionary water companies were found to be more productive than full private and public water companies. Best and worst performers need to make efforts to reduce production costs and improve service quality. Other factors such as customer density and ownership type statistically affect productivity.

Research on the dismantling of double-arch tunnel after long-term service—the case study of Huangmeishan Tunnel demolition project

Mountain tunnel structures are subject to a variety of diseases with increasing service life. Earlier tunnels may need to be demolished and expanded because of the poor serving capacity. But few studies of tunnel demolition projects are available. Based on the demolition project of Huangmeishan Tunnel, this paper discusses the demolition scheme of the double-arch tunnel, calculates the stability of the slope, and investigates the defects and material performance in the tunnel. The water leakage in the tunnel mainly occurred at the mid-partition wall and the drainage pipe was clogged severely. The largest width of the crack detected is 15 mm. Material performance tests indicated that the concrete material strength exceeded the design values. In the loading test, the largest displacements of the tunnel arch and haunch were 1.73 and 1.32 mm, which verified the safety of heavy vehicles in construction. Finally, suggestions are given to avoid similar phenomena in other tunnels during the design, construction, and operation phase. The novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive analysis of a tunnel demolition project. The findings of this study contribute to enhancing the knowledge and understanding of tunnel demolition and support the safe and efficient execution of future demolition projects.

Technical Challenges Facing Water Users in Accessing Water Services from the Public Water Supply Authority in Dodoma City, Tanzania

Water service is essential for human survival. For it to be easily accessed with adequate amount in an increasing population, there are number of challenges that need to be addressed with existing expertise, protocols and operations. Thus, this study aimed to examine the Technical Challenges Facing Water Users on Accessing Water Service from the Public Water Supply Authority in Dodoma City namely Dodoma Urban Water and Sanitation Authority (DUWASA). The study employed a mixed research approach where a cross sectional research design was used to collect data at one time from July to August 2021. A sample size of the study was 96 respondents drawn from three wards in Dodoma City who are clients of DUWASA, 3 local government leaders and 5 officials from DUWASA. A Multi-stage random sampling was chosen to collect data accurately represents the technical water-related challenges faced by water users. Three wards were selected to represents Dodoma City residents, two streets were then selected from each of the three wards. Sixteen households were randomly selected from one street in each ward, resulting in a total of 32 households per ward. The study used purposive technique in selection of 5 key informants who are the DUWASA officials, one local ward leaders from each of the selected wards. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques were employed in the study. Using descriptive statistical analysis, the findings revealed that, limited number of days and number of hours, limited water resources, poor infrastructures which leads to the loss of water through water leakage as technical challenges hindering accessibility of water services. The study recommends for construction of modernized water networks and efforts to increase more sources of water that will lead to exploit more water.

An Engineering Geological Appraisal of the Leakage Problem in Dora-1 Earthen Dam, Tigray: Implications for its Stability

Leakage is one of the major problems facing the functionality and sustainability of dams. It occurs through the embankment body, reservoir, foundation, and abutments. This study was conducted to identify the main causes of the leakage problem at the Dora-1 dam, located in the northern part of Ethiopia. It is an earthfill dam with a height of 43.5 m, crest length of 454 m, and reservoir capacity of 4.67 million cubic meters. Part of the embankment body was wet and swampy up to 20 m high from the ground due to leaking water. Geological investigation, laboratory test of the construction materials (including grain size analysis, specific gravity and water absorption, Atterberg limit, free swell, dispersion, permeability, and shear strength), and electrical resistivity investigation were used to identify and pinpoint the possible causes of the leakage problem. Results of the study show that the favorable geological features responsible for the occurrence of leakage include: (a) geological contact between sandstone and moderately to highly weathered basalt unit at the left abutment, (b) the gravelly sand deposit at the central foundation and (c) dyke outcrop at the river course within the reservoir running in the upstream-downstream direction. Results of laboratory tests for clay core show medium to high compressibility, good to poor workability, and semi-pervious to impervious permeability when compacted. The water absorption and the percentage finer of the filter material don’t satisfy the filter criteria and the shell material was found to be semi-previous. The anomalous in the resistivity survey result confirms the situation. Slope stability analysis of the embankment showed instability conditions at full reservoir level. Close follow-up and a downstream stabilization structure, including rock and gravel support, were recommended.
 Construction material; Embankment dam; Site investigations; Ethiopia.

Fundamental evaluation of hydrogen behavior in sodium for sodium-water reaction detection of sodium-cooled fast reactor

In a secondary cooling system of a sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR), rapid detection of hydrogen due to sodium-water reaction (SWR) caused by water leakage from a heat exchanger tube of a steam generator (SG) is important in terms of safety and property protection of the SFR. For hydrogen detection, the hydrogen detectors using atomic transmission phenomenon of hydrogen within Ni-membrane were used in Japanese proto-type SFR “Monju”. However, during the plant operation, detection signals of water leakage were observed even in the situation without SWR concerning temperature up and down in the cooling system. For this reason, the study of a new hydrogen detector has been carried out to improve stability, accuracy and reliability. In this research, the authors focus on the difference in composition of hydrogen and the difference between the background hydrogen under normal plant operation and the one generated by SWR and theoretically estimate the hydrogen behavior in liquid sodium by using ultra-accelerated quantum chemical molecular dynamics (UA-QCMD). Based on the estimation, dissolved H or NaH, rather than molecular hydrogen (H2), is the predominant form of the background hydrogen in liquid sodium in terms of energetical stability. On the other hand, it was found that hydrogen molecules produced by the sodium-water reaction can exist stably as a form of a fine bubble concerning some confinement mechanism such as a NaH layer on their surface. At the same time, we observed experimentally that the fine H2 bubbles exist stably in the liquid sodium, longer than previously expected. This paper describes the comparison between the theoretical estimation and experimental results based on hydrogen form in sodium in the development of the new hydrogen detector in Japan.

Machine Learning Model for Leak Detection Using Water Pipeline Vibration Sensor

Water leakage from aging water and wastewater pipes is a persistent problem, necessitating the improvement of existing leak detection and response methods. In this study, we conducted an analysis of essential features based on data collected from leak detection sensors installed at water meter boxes and water outlets of pipelines. The water pipeline data collected through the vibration sensor were preprocessed by converting it into a tabular form by frequency band and applied to various machine learning models. The characteristics of each model were analyzed, and XGBoost was selected as the most suitable leak detection model with a high accuracy of 99.79%. These systems can effectively reduce leak detection and response time, minimize water waste, and minimize economic losses. Additionally, this technology can be applied to various fields that utilize water pipes, making it widely applicable.

누수사고에 있어서 손해방지비용의 인정범위

The Commercial Act Article 680, Paragraph 1, stipulates that the policyholder and the insured must make efforts to prevent and reduce damage. In addition, it is stipulated that even if necessary or beneficial costs and compensation exceed the insurance amount, the insurer shall bear them. There is an increasing number of cases where insured persons who have signed up for daily life liability insurance replace pipes or perform waterproofing work when a water leak occurs and then claim insurance money as damage prevention costs.
 The rulings on this all come to different conclusions. However, the 2021Da201085 and 201092 rulings of the Supreme Court on March 31, 2022 states that water leak detection costs, costs related to prevent damage to third parties directly caused by water leaks and construction costs related to work to prevent the expansion of damage that has already occurred to third parties may be considered damage prevention costs.
 But the 2021Da201085 and 201092 rulings of the Supreme Court on March 31, 2022 also pointed out that the scope of damage prevention costs caused by water leakage accidents needs to be judged individually for each specific case. Basically, damage prevention costs are the costs required for the policyholder to fulfill the damage prevention obligation, so the scope of damage prevention costs needs to be reviewed in connection with how far the policyholder's damage prevention obligation will be extended. In addition, it must be permitted within the limits of not being contrary to relevant legal principles, such as the requirements for damage prevention obligations, the nature of liability insurance and the relationship with the Commercial Act Article 678.
 In that case, if the insured detects the point and the cause of the water leak, turns off the water and temporarily installs a water tank on the ceiling, the risk of further water damage disappears, and the damage prevention obligation ends at that point. Afterwards, the insurer is not obligated to compensate for pipe replacement or waterproofing layer repair work to prevent future water damage to the house below, as these are repair costs for the insured's own property or future accident prevention costs and cannot be considered damage prevention costs.

Analytical Method for Bridge Damage Using Deep Learning-Based Image Analysis Technology

Bridge inspection methods using unmanned vehicles have been attracting attention. In this study, we devised an efficient and reliable method for visually inspecting bridges using unmanned vehicles. For this purpose, we developed the BIRD U-Net algorithm, which is an evolution of the U-Net algorithm that utilizes images taken by unmanned vehicles. Unlike the U-Net algorithm, however, this algorithm identifies the optimal function by setting the epoch to 120 and uses the Adam optimization algorithm. In addition, a bilateral filter was applied to highlight the damaged areas of the bridge, and a different color was used for each of the five types of abnormalities detected, such as cracks. Next, we trained and tested 135,696 images of exterior bridge damage, including concrete delamination, water leakage, and exposed rebar. Through the analysis, we confirmed an analysis method that yields an average inspection reproduction rate of more than 95%. In addition, we compared and analyzed the inspection reproduction rate of the method with that of BIRD U-Net after using the same method and images for training as the existing U-Net and ResNet algorithms for validation. In addition, the algorithm developed in this study is expected to yield objective results through automatic damage analysis. It can be applied to regular inspections that involve unmanned mobile vehicles in the field of bridge maintenance, thereby reducing the associated time and cost.

Influence of noise masking on leak pinpointing: Experimental analysis on a laboratory test rig for leak noise correlation.

The efficient management of water distribution networks requires the detection and mitigation of leaks that result in significant water losses, economic costs, and potential health hazards. This experimental study focuses on the optimal frequency range for accurately locating a water leak in a distribution network using the noise correlation approach while mitigating the influence of background noise associated with water consumption from users. Through laboratory experimental tests, a digital bandpass filter was defined in order to pre-process signals and to improve cross-correlation analysis within the pertinent frequency range. This was done by characterising the frequency content of leak-induced noise, noise masking resulting from water consumption, and background noise. The analysed signals were recorded using hydrophones installed within the pipes of a laboratory test rig under different conditions of water flow rate. The spectra analysis assessed the influence of varying water flow rates on the acoustic sound field within the pipeline system. Additionally, the results of the analysis made it possible to discriminate clearly between noise generated by leaks and noise attributed to water consumption. This distinction is useful for implementing suitable filters, and also to establish a threshold ratio of leak flow rate to water consumption flow rate for effective pre-filtering. This study aims to establish a methodological framework that can effectively differentiate between acoustic signals stemming from leaks and noise generated by other sources within the system, to improve leak location accuracy through the noise correlation approach.

Sniffer dogs as an emerging approach for water leakage detection

Abstract Effective control of water leakage is a critical aspect for ensuring the high-quality development of the water sector. In recent years, the utilization of sniffer dogs in water leakage detection has emerged as a promising technology, progressing from laboratory experiments to small-scale real-world applications. Leveraging their remarkable ability to trace chlorine, sniffer dogs have demonstrated an impressive accuracy and high efficiency in detecting underground pipe leaks. This mini-review comprehensively examines the advancements in sniffer dog usage for leak detection, provides an overview of various application methods, and elucidates the conditions and limitations associated with each approach. It also delves into the management mechanisms of sniffer dogs, offering a comparative analysis of different management models. Lastly, this review addresses the challenges inherent in applying sniffer dogs to water leak detection, poses pertinent research questions concerning sniffer dogs' training and the expansion of odour fingerprint, and presents a forward-looking perspective on the subject.

Theoretical aspects and numerical modelling of the GPR method to analyse its possibilities for the detection of leakages in urban water supply networks

Geophysical methods, especially selected electrical and electromagnetic ones, have been used for many years for the non-invasive detection of leakages from water supply networks. In this paper, the author focuses on theoretical aspects and numerical simulations to analyse the possibilities and limitations of the application of the selected electromagnetic method, i.e., the ground-penetrating radar (GPR) method for the aforementioned purpose. Various measurement techniques are used in the GPR method but in the paper the author refers to the most commonly used technique known as short-offset reflection profiling (SORP). As demonstrated in the paper, the detection of water leakages into a homogeneous and isotropic geological medium using the GPR method is a simple matter. However, the detection of leakages occurring in heterogeneous ground subjected to strong anthropopression and with the presence of electromagnetic interference becomes a difficult task, and interpretation may be difficult or even impossible. An important issue analysed in the paper was the phenomenon of the scattering of electromagnetic waves on underground anthropogenic objects, which very often occurs in urbanised areas. The results of the numerical modelling carried out for various scenarios of water leakages into typical ground allowed the possibilities and limitations of using the GPR method for the detection of leakages from water supply networks to be determined.

A Simplified Approach for Predicting Bend Radius in HDPE Pipelines during Offshore Installation

Traditionally, subsea pipelines designed for the transportation of oil, gas, and water are constructed using carbon steel due to its strength, toughness, and ability to operate at temperatures up to 427 °C. However, polyethylene (PE), especially its high-density variant (HDPE), presents advantages such as reduced installation costs, diminished water leakage, and superior corrosion resistance. As research endeavours to enhance PE properties, its adoption for subsea applications is anticipated to rise. This study first delineates the mechanical behaviour of HDPE pipelines for offshore installation, identifying pulling tension, dimension ratio, water depth, and air fill ratio as the paramount lay parameters. Subsequently, a theoretical bend radius equation was derived from pipelaying mechanics using a purely geometric approach. Within this equation, two determinants, parameter X and parameter Y, dictate the sagbend bend radius. Regression analysis elucidated the relationships of lay parameters with both X and Y, yielding a general equation for X in terms of pull tension, water depth, and air fill ratio and another for Y as a function of water depth. Together, these geometric determinants underpin the sagbend bend radius estimation model. For overbend bend radius prediction, a lay index (IL) was fashioned from the aforementioned three parameters. Correlation assessments between the lay index and overbend bend radius revealed R2 values of 0.940, 0.836, and 0.712 for pipes with diameters of 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 metres, respectively. This underscores the model’s proficiency in predicting the bend radius, albeit with decreasing precision for larger-diameter pipelines.

Detecting Background Leakages in Water Infrastructure With Fiber Optic Distributed Temperature Sensing: Insights From a Heat Transfer-Unsaturated Flow Model

The use of fiber optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) to detect and locate leaks is still in its infancy in water infrastructure, despite its promising capabilities. Only few experiments tested this technology, and none of these studies focused on small but persistent leaks, like background leakages, which are ubiquitous and generally go undetected with the technology currently available, thus posing a serious threat to the available water resource. To test the feasibility of detecting and locating background leakages with fiber optic DTS, this study provides a detailed analysis on flow and temperature alterations around leaking water pipelines in presence of small leaks (5, 25, and 125 L/d) with small to moderate temperature differences with the surrounding soil, under 3 different pipe defect configurations, either in absence or in presence of pipe thermal insulation. Transient 3D heat transfer-unsaturated flow numerical simulations showed that there is potential to use temperature alterations to detect and locate incredibly small leaks with fiber optic DTS, like background leakages, despite the influence of pipe temperature on the surrounding soil. The analysis showed that extent, distribution, and magnitude of these alterations are convection dominated at a given temperature difference between leaked water and undisturbed soil, and that it may not be strictly necessary to place the optical fiber directly below the pipe. Indeed, optical fibers located within the utility trench at the sides of the pipe and below its bottom showed comparable or even better performance, thus giving new opportunities to retrofit existing pipelines as well.

Utilizing Ground-Penetrating Radar for Water Leak Detection and Pipe Material Characterization in Environmental Studies: A Case Study

Detecting and mapping subsurface utilities in urban areas is crucial for identifying defects or damages in drinking and sewage pipes that can cause leaks. These leaks make it difficult to accurately characterize the pipes due to changes in their reflective properties. This study focused on detecting leaks originating from underground pipes and distinguishing between these various types of pipes. It also aimed to create a visual fingerprint model that displays the reflection characteristics of these pipes during different leak conditions, enabling efficient maintenance and handling procedures on the pipes. To achieve this, a finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method was used to simulate two types of pipe materials with and without leak areas to construct different scenarios. Additionally, a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) field survey was conducted using a 600 MHz antenna in a part of the El Hammam area on Egypt’s northwest coast. The simulated images produced with numerical modeling were compared with the radar profiles obtained using GPR at particular locations. The numerical simulations and radar profiles demonstrated the noticeable influence of water leaks from the different pipes, wherein the reflection of saturated soil waves was interrupted due to the presence of saturated soil. Envelope and migration techniques were employed in a new application to accurately distinguish between different pipe types, specifically focusing on leak areas. The strong correlation between the real radar profile and the specific signal of a water pipe leak in the simulated models suggests that GPR is a reliable non-destructive geophysical method for detecting water pipe leaks and distinguishing between the different pipe materials in various field conditions. The simulated models, which serve as image-matching fingerprints to identify and map water pipe leaks, help us to comprehend reality better.

Capacitive Pressure Sensors Based on Square‐Conical Arrays Fabricated by a Fabric‐Mould Strategy for Ultralow and Highly Sensitive Pressure Detection

AbstractFlexible pressure sensors are playing an emerging role in artificial intelligence and electronic skin. However, developing a high‐performance, flexible pressure sensor through a reusable and straightforward manufacturing approach still remains a challenge. In this study, a highly sensitive, flexible capacitive pressure sensor based on a fabric‐mould strategy is introduced. Custom square‐conical arrays with Au electrodes can feasibly be fabricated at scale by peeling them off the fabric mould. The fabricated pressure sensor exhibits a high sensitivity of 5.829 kPa−1 (0–0.444 kPa) and a rapid response/recovery time of 160/70 ms. Notably, the sensor has an ultralow detection limit of 0.24 Pa, showing great potential for extremely sensitive pressure detection applications, such as water leakage monitoring. Finite element analysis, grounded on 3D‐scanning reconstruction, reveals that the enhanced sensing performance can be attributed to the contact surface of the square‐conical arrays. Moreover, the pressure sensors can accurately identify human physiological information, as well as the spatial distribution and shape of objects, further highlighting the promise for wearable electronic devices. This work not only offers a new approach for large‐scale fabrication of micro‐structures at low cost but also provides a new insight into the optimization of structures for sensitive pressure sensors.

Acute and chronic risk assessment of BTEX in the return water of hydraulic fracturing operations in Marcellus Shale

Environmental pollution caused by human activities is a pressing issue in developed countries. In this context, it is vital to establish methodologies for the early and reliable estimation of the health risks posed by potential pollutants. Flowback and produced water (return water) from shale gas operations can contain toxic compounds, of which BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes) are of concern due to their toxicity and frequent presence above regulatory limits. The return water generated by these operations is stored in ponds or tanks before reaching its final destination. Over time, the composition of this water changes, and leaks or inadequate contact can harm the environment and human health.Here we developed a risk assessment framework to evaluate the temporal evolution of chronic and acute BTEX exposure risks caused by accidental return water leakage. We applied the approach to a hydraulic fracturing operation in the Marcellus Shale Formation. Starting with a time series of BTEX concentrations in the return water, our method deploys transport models to assess risk to health. Our approach compares exposure levels with regulatory limits for inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact. By identifying the risk levels, exposure pathways, and control parameters in the case study for a range of periods after leakage, our study supports the implementation of appropriate risk mitigation strategies. In addition, by examining risk variation under arid, semi-arid, and humid climate scenarios, the study reveals the impact of climate change on soil characteristics and BTEX transport.The development and application of this methodology is an important step in addressing concerns regarding shale gas operations. The approach proposed paves the way for sustainable practices that prioritise the protection of human health and the environment.

Experimental study on the properties of a polymer-modified superfine cementitious composite material for waterproofing and plugging

Long-term waterproofing and water leakage treatment of existing underground structures have become prominent issues in the operation and maintenance of underground structures. The use of single organic or inorganic materials for water leakage treatment is not effective for solving practical engineering problems. Considering the properties of organic and inorganic materials, a novel composite material mixing the waterborne epoxy resin and superfine ordinary Portland cement-sulphoaluminate cement was presented, which was studied as a polymer-modified cementitious composite for waterproofing and plugging. This study investigated the primary physical properties of the raw materials of the polymer-modified cementitious composite. Experimental tests were performed to investigate the effects of waterborne epoxy resin on the impermeability, interface adhesion, and tensile deformation performances of the superfine cementitious waterproof material. The results showed that the average water penetration height of the waterborne epoxy resin-modified material was only 52.2% that of the cementitious materials, indicating better impermeability performance. When 3% waterborne epoxy resin was mixed, the bending bond strength of the polymer-modified composite material was 10.6% higher than that of the cementitious material. The direct tensile bond strength of the polymer-modified composite material with various waterborne epoxy resin content significantly improved, demonstrating a maximum increase of 72.6%. Compared with the original cementitious material, the toughness, tensile deformation capacity, and tensile strength of the polymer-modified superfine cementitious composite material were improved. The maximum tensile amount increased by 48.3% when an appropriate amount of waterborne epoxy resin was mixed, which is the primary performance in long-term waterproofing. Moreover, the bearing capacity increased by 335.2% compared with the cementitious materials when 7% waterborne epoxy resin was mixed. The key contribution of this research is to propose a high performance and effective polymer-modified composite material for the treatment of waterproofing and plugging. The findings from the study also provide industry practitioners with a comprehensive guide regarding the mechanical and impermeability performances of the polymer-modified superfine cementitious composite material.

Towards automated 3D evaluation of water leakage on a tunnel face via improved GAN and self-attention DL model

Grasping the segmentation and three-dimensional (3D) positioning information of the water leakage area on a rock tunnel face is of great significance for determining the necessary construction arrangements to ensure the safety of tunnel excavation. This paper presents a novel method for automated 3D evaluation of a tunnel leakage area based on an improved Generative adversarial network (GAN) and Swin Transformer model. First, this paper solves the shortcomings of insufficient and unbalanced data in the original leakage image datasets obtained from mountain and submarine tunnel projects, by using new images generated by an improved lightweight GAN model that establishes the GAN-based WIIN-2 dataset. The leakage images in this dataset are then divided into five categories. Afterwards, a newly developed high-performance Swin Transformer model combines shift windows and a self-attention mechanism to produce intelligent segmentation of the leakage area. The segmentation results of the Swin Transformer model on the GAN-based WIIN-2 dataset achieves mAcc, mIoU, mF score, mPrecision and mRecall metrics of 93.1%, 91.5%, 82.83%, 85.62% and 80.3%, respectively. The segmentation results of the DL models (Swin Transformer, Deeplab V3+, Fast CNN and Unet) are subsequently compared. The Swin Transformer model performs better than the other three models in terms of the five evaluation metrics and segmentation efficiency, which indicates that the Swin Transformer model is an improvement on current methods for segmenting leakage areas on a rock tunnel face. Finally, the novel 3D leakage area location model proposed in this work is used to visualize and reconstruct the 3D coordinates of the leakage area on the rock tunnel face.

The Sensing Performance of a Novel Optical Cable for Tunnel Water Leakage Monitoring Based on Distributed Strain Sensing

The Sensing Performance of a Novel Optical Cable for Tunnel Water Leakage Monitoring Based on Distributed Strain Sensing

Detection of Fractured Limestone Landslides Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Case Study in the Mokattam Plateau, Egypt

Landslides occurred in the Ain Moussa area, north of Mokattam, Egypt. The study aims to detect landslide causes in fractured limestone using electrical resistivity tomography. The result of the electrical resistivity tomography profiles showed that there are two main layers: the first is a high-geoelectrical resistivity layer of fractured limestone covered in some places by backfill sediments, and the second is a low-geoelectrical resistivity layer of shale below the limestone. In between the two layers is a zone that is holding the weight of water leaking from the surface; it has a medium resistivity value. These results were compared with available satellite images. Based on the results, it was found that there is a layer of fractured limestone on the surface. The top part of it is dry, but the bottom part has water leaking from the surface, which has the biggest effect on landslides. The shale layer's surface is irregular, as it was discovered that the most influential part is the low part of the shale's surface, as it contains a high-water content and thus is more affected, and it is where the landslide occurred. It is possible to identify the deepest points of the shale layer, on which the water leaking from the surface collects, along the plateau, as these places are more likely to cause landslides.