Water Kerma Research Articles

Determination of backscatter factors based on the quality index for diagnostic kilovoltage x-ray beams.

This study aims to investigate the relationship between backscatter factors and Al-half-value-layers (Al-HVL) by making the quality index (QI) a parameter for diagnostic kilovoltage x-ray beams. Backscatter factors, Bw, for x-ray fluence spectra were calculated from the weighted average of Bw for monoenergetic photons of between 8 and 140keV with field sizes of 10cm×10cm to 40cm×40cm. The value of Bw for monoenergetic photons was calculated from the ratio of the water kerma at the surface of a water phantom and that at the same point free-in-air using the EGSnrc/cavity code. The weighted averaged backscatter factors were validated by comparing them with those of direct Monte Carlo calculations for the x-ray fluence spectra. The Bw for the x-ray fluence spectra were classified by a QI of 0.35, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7 specified by the ratio of the effective energy and maximum energy. The relationship between Bw and Al-HVL was evaluated for the given QI values. The x-ray fluence spectra were generated for tube voltages of 40-140 kVp with Al-HVLs of 0.5-13.2mm using the SpekCalc program. The weighted averaged backscatter factors for x-ray fluence spectra agreed within 0.7% with those of the direct Monte Carlo calculations. The backscatter factors were represented by the fitting curves of R2>0.99 with Al-HVL for the given QI values. It is possible to obtain Bw more accurately by using QI specified by the measured Al-HVL.

Determination of a beam quality conversion factor from 60Co to 192Ir

Radiation dosimetry is an integral part of the radiation therapy process. The ultimate goal of radiation dosimetry is to determine the dose delivered to the tumor and to the normal tissues in a patient undergoing radiotherapy. The importance of HDR 192Ir brachytherapy as the main mode of treatment calls for an accurate dosimetry standard. A dosimetry standard for the direct measurement of absolute dose to water in 192Ir sources is not available.The AAPM TG-43, along with its update, constitutes the accepted protocol for dose to water determination based on an air kerma strength Sk,air measurement. The air kerma strength of the radioactive source is converted to dose to water via dose rate constant Λ (a calculated absolute quantify) and several relative correction factors accounting for scatter attenuation and anisotropy of the dose distribution among other effects.In this work, we proposed an absorbed dose conversion by determination of a beam quality factor (kQ) with an ionization chamber. Ideally, the kQ should be measured directly for each chamber at the same quality as the user beam. However, this is not achievable in most standards laboratories. When no experimental data are available, or it is difficult to measure kQ directly to realistic beams, in many cases the correction factors can be calculated theoretically with Monte Carlo method. The geometric design and material details of the source was provided by the manufacturer and was used to define the Monte Carlo geometry. To validate the source geometry, a few dosimetry parameters had to be calculated according to the AAPM TG-43U1 formalism. The dosimetry studies included the calculation of the air kerma strength Sk, collision kerma in water along the transverse axis with an unbounded phantom, dose rate constant and radial dose function. The Monte Carlo code system that was used was EGSnrc with a new cavity code, which is a part of EGS++ that allows calculating the radial dose function around the source. The XCOM photon cross-section library was used in subsequent simulations. Consequently, the photoelectric effect, pair production, Rayleigh scattering and bound Compton scattering were included in the simulation. Variance reduction techniques were also used in the simulations to speed up the calculation. The obtained radial dose function and dose rate constant of the Gammamed Plus 192Ir source in this work were compared with those obtained by Ballester et al. and Taylor &Rogers et al.A value of 1.109 ± 0.003 for the dose to the chamber to dose to water ratio was determined for PTW 30013 ionization chamber. The agreement between the EGSnrc calculated and TRS-398 reported result is encouragingly similar. The beam quality correction factor, kQ, was obtained at 2 cm. This ratio corresponds to the beam quality conversion factor from 60Co to 192Ir. With this kQ it is possible measure the absorbed dose to water at any point for HDR 192Ir source.

SU‐F‐T‐12: Monte Carlo Dosimetry of the 60Co Bebig High Dose Rate Source for Brachytherapy

Purpose:The purpose of this work is to obtain the dosimetry parameters in accordance with the AAPM TG‐43U1 formalism with Monte Carlo calculations regarding the BEBIG 60Co high‐dose‐rate brachytherapy. The geometric design and material details of the source was provided by the manufacturer and was used to define the Monte Carlo geometry.Methods:The dosimetry studies included the calculation of the air kerma strength Sk, collision kerma in water along the transverse axis with an unbounded phantom, dose rate constant and radial dose function. The Monte Carlo code system that was used was EGSnrc with a new cavity code, which is a part of EGS++ that allows calculating the radial dose function around the source. The XCOM photon cross‐section library was used. Variance reduction techniques were used to speed up the calculation and to considerably reduce the computer time. To obtain the dose rate distributions of the source in an unbounded liquid water phantom, the source was immersed at the center of a cube phantom of 100 cm3.Results:The obtained dose rate constant for the BEBIG 60Co source was 1.108±0.001 cGyh‐1U‐1, which is consistent with the values in the literature. The radial dose functions were compared with the values of the consensus data set in the literature, and they are consistent with the published data for this energy range.Conclusion:The dose rate constant is consistent with the results of Granero et al. and Selvam and Bhola within 1%. Dose rate data are compared to GEANT4 and DORZnrc Monte Carlo code. However, the radial dose function is different by up to 10% for the points that are notably near the source on the transversal axis because of the high‐energy photons from 60Co, which causes an electronic disequilibrium at the interface between the source capsule and the liquid water for distances up to 1 cm.

Monte Carlo Dosimetry of the 60Co BEBIG High Dose Rate for Brachytherapy.

IntroductionThe use of high-dose-rate brachytherapy is currently a widespread practice worldwide. The most common isotope source is 192Ir, but 60Co is also becoming available for HDR. One of main advantages of 60Co compared to 192Ir is the economic and practical benefit because of its longer half-live, which is 5.27 years. Recently, Eckert & Ziegler BEBIG, Germany, introduced a new afterloading brachytherapy machine (MultiSource®); it has the option to use either the 60Co or 192Ir HDR source. The source for the Monte Carlo calculations is the new 60Co source (model Co0.A86), which is referred to as the new BEBIG 60Co HDR source and is a modified version of the 60Co source (model GK60M21), which is also from BEBIG.Objective and MethodsThe purpose of this work is to obtain the dosimetry parameters in accordance with the AAPM TG-43U1 formalism with Monte Carlo calculations regarding the BEBIG 60Co high-dose-rate brachytherapy to investigate the required treatment-planning parameters. The geometric design and material details of the source was provided by the manufacturer and was used to define the Monte Carlo geometry. To validate the source geometry, a few dosimetry parameters had to be calculated according to the AAPM TG-43U1 formalism. The dosimetry studies included the calculation of the air kerma strength S k, collision kerma in water along the transverse axis with an unbounded phantom, dose rate constant and radial dose function. The Monte Carlo code system that was used was EGSnrc with a new cavity code, which is a part of EGS++ that allows calculating the radial dose function around the source. The spectrum to simulate 60Co was composed of two photon energies, 1.17 and 1.33 MeV. Only the gamma part of the spectrum was used; the contribution of the electrons to the dose is negligible because of the full absorption by the stainless-steel wall around the metallic 60Co. The XCOM photon cross-section library was used in subsequent simulations, and the photoelectric effect, pair production, Rayleigh scattering and bound Compton scattering were included in the simulation. Variance reduction techniques were used to speed up the calculation and to considerably reduce the computer time. The cut-off energy was 10 keV for electrons and photons. To obtain the dose rate distributions of the source in an unbounded liquid water phantom, the source was immersed at the center of a cube phantom of 100 cm3. The liquid water density was 0.998 g/cm3, and photon histories of up to 1010 were used to obtain the results with a standard deviation of less than 0.5% (k = 1). The obtained dose rate constant for the BEBIG 60Co source was 1.108±0.001 cGyh-1U-1, which is consistent with the values in the literature. The radial dose functions were compared with the values of the consensus data set in the literature, and they are consistent with the published data for this energy range.

Evolution of the CaF2:Tm (TLD-300) glow curve as an indicator of beam quality for low-energy photon beams

We study the high- to low- temperature signal ratio (HLTR) of the CaF2:Tm glow curve as a function of beam quality for low-energy photon beams with effective energy between 15.2 and 33.6 keV, generated with W, Mo and Rh anodes. CaF2:Tm dosemeters (TLD-300) were exposed to x-rays and 60Co gamma-rays. Glow curves were deconvoluted into 7 peaks, using computerized glow curve deconvolution and HLTR was evaluated. Air kerma and dose in water were between 2.1–15.0 mGy and 49.8–373.8 mGy, respectively. All peaks in the glow curve showed a linear response with respect to air kerma and dose in water. HLTR values decreased monotonically between 1.029 ± 0.010 (at 15.2 keV) and 0.821 ± 0.011 (33.6 keV), and no effects due to the use of different anode/filter combinations were observed. The results indicate a relatively high value of HLTR (about 1 for 17 keV effective energy, or 3 keV μm−1 track-average LET) and a measurable dependence on the photon beam quality. Comparison of these photon data with HLTR for ions shows good quantitative agreement. The reported evolution of the CaF2:Tm glow curve could facilitate the estimation of the effective energy of unknown photon fields by this technique.

Poster - Thur Eve - 47: Monte Carlo Simulation of Scp, Sc and Sp

The in-water output ratio (Scp), in-air output ratio (Sc), and phantom scattering factor (Sp) are important parameters for radiotherapy dose calculation. Experimentally, Scp is obtained by measuring the dose rate ratio in water phantom, and Sc the water Kerma rate ratio in air. There is no method that allows direct measurement of Sp. Monte Carlo (MC) method has been used to simulate Scp and Sc in literatures, similar to experimental setup, but no MC direct simulation of Sp available yet to the best of our knowledge. We propose in this report a method of performing direct MC simulation of Sp. Starting from the definition, we derived that Sp of a clinical photon beam can be approximated by the ratio of the dose rates contributed from the primary beam for a given field size to the reference field size. Since only the primary beam is used, any Linac head scattering should be excluded from the simulation, which can be realized by using the incident electron as a scoring parameter for MU. We performed MC simulations for Scp, Sc and Sp. Scp matches well with golden beam data. Sp obtained by the proposed method agrees well with what is obtained using themore » traditional method, Sp=Scp/Sc. Since the smaller the field size, the more the primary beam dominates, our Sp simulation method is accurate for small field. By analyzing the calculated data, we found that this method can be used with no problem for large fields. The difference it introduced is clinically insignificant.« less

Poster — Thur Eve — 43: Monte Carlo Modeling of Flattening Filter Free Beams and Studies of Relative Output Factors

Flattening filter free (FFF) beams have been adopted by many clinics and used for patient treatment. However, compared to the traditional flattened beams, we have limited knowledge of FFF beams. In this study, we successfully modeled the 6 MV FFF beam for Varian TrueBeam accelerator with the Monte Carlo (MC) method. Both the percentage depth dose and profiles match well to the Golden Beam Data (GBD) from Varian. MC simulations were then performed to predict the relative output factors. The in‐water output ratio, Scp, was simulated in water phantom and data obtained agrees well with GBD. The in‐air output ratio, Sc, was obtained by analyzing the phase space placed at isocenter, in air, and computing the ratio of water Kerma rates for different field sizes. The phantom scattering factor, Sp, can then be obtained from the traditional way of taking the ratio of Scp and Sc. We also simulated Sp using a recently proposed method based on only the primary beam dose delivery in water phantom. Because there is no concern of lateral electronic disequilibrium, this method is more suitable for small fields. The results from both methods agree well with each other. The flattened 6 MV beam was simulated and compared to 6 MV FFF. The comparison confirms that 6 MV FFF has less scattering from the Linac head and less phantom scattering contribution to the central axis dose, which will be helpful for improving accuracy in beam modeling and dose calculation in treatment planning systems.

Development and validation of a hybrid simulation technique for cone beam CT: application to an oral imaging system

This paper proposes a hybrid technique to simulate the complete chain of an oral cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) system for the study of both radiation dose and image quality. The model was developed around a 3D Accuitomo 170 unit (J Morita, Japan) with a tube potential range of 60–90 kV. The Monte Carlo technique was adopted to simulate the x-ray generation, filtration and collimation. Exact dimensions of the bow-tie filter were estimated iteratively using experimentally acquired flood images. Non-flat radiation fields for different exposure settings were mediated via ‘phase spaces’. Primary projection images were obtained by ray tracing at discrete energies and were fused according to the two-dimensional energy modulation templates derived from the phase space. Coarse Monte Carlo simulations were performed for scatter projections and the resulting noisy images were smoothed by Richardson–Lucy fitting. Resolution and noise characteristics of the flat panel detector were included using the measured modulation transfer function (MTF) and the noise power spectrum (NPS), respectively. The Monte Carlo dose calculation was calibrated in terms of kerma free-in-air about the isocenter, using an ionization chamber, and was subsequently validated by comparison against the measured air kerma in water at various positions of a cylindrical water phantom. The resulting dose discrepancies were found <10% for most cases. Intensity profiles of the experimentally acquired and simulated projection images of the water phantom showed comparable fractional increase over the common area as changing from a small to a large field of view, suggesting that the scatter was accurately accounted. Image validation was conducted using two small phantoms and the built-in quality assurance protocol of the system. The reconstructed simulated images showed high resemblance on contrast resolution, noise appearance and artifact pattern in comparison to experimentally acquired images, with <5% difference for voxel values of the aluminum and air insert regions and <3% difference for voxel uniformity across the homogeneous PMMA region. The detector simulation by use of the MTF and NPS data exhibited a big influence on noise and the sharpness of the resulting images. The hybrid simulation technique is flexible and has wide applicability to CBCT systems.

TU‐E‐BRB‐02: Monte Carlo Optimized Composition and Structure of a Novel Energy‐Independent Radiochromic Film

Purpose: To develop an energy‐independent Gafchromic film through optimization of the film absorbed dose energy response using accurate Monte Carlo modeling. Methods: A prototype radiochromic film (similar in construction to EBT2) was simulated accurately using the DOSRZnrc of EGSnrcMP Monte Carlo user‐code. The composition of the film active layer was changed according to physical limits set by the manufacturer. The dose to film was scored in a 3cm radius region of active layer centered on the central beam axis. The film was simulated inside a large body of solid water for megavoltage beams, while at kilovoltage energies, the film was modeled in air. The simulations were repeated to score the dose to water as well as water kerma in air for megavoltage and kilovoltage beams, respectively. Results: The absorbed dose energy dependence f(Q) was studied in detail for a wide variety of film active layer compositions in a 10keV–100keV energy range as well as at Co‐60. Addition of bromine was found to affect f(Q) in the 40–50keV region, while chlorine significantly affected the lowest energies. We determined that intrinsic (LET‐dependent) energy dependence kbq(Q) also plays an important role on the total energy dependence of Gafchromic films and cannot be ignored. Subsequent measurements unexpectedly showed changes in kbq(Q) as a function of chlorine and bromine content. Intrinsic energy dependence was determined indirectly by measuring the total energy‐dependence of prototype films and taking out the calculated extrinsic portion. This formed the basis for an iterative process for film development. Conclusions: Through numerical optimization of the composition of the active layer of a new prototype radiochromic film, we have thus far been able to compensate for intrinsic energy response of the films and produce a new film with a total response of+2% to −6% in 50kVp to Co‐60 energy range.

A robust method for determining the absorbed dose to water in a phantom for low-energy photon radiation

The application of more and more low-energy photon radiation in brachytherapy—either in the form of low-dose-rate radioactive seeds such as Pd-103 or I-125 or in the form of miniature x-ray tubes—has induced greater interest in determining the absorbed dose to water in water in this energy range. As it seems to be hardly feasible to measure the absorbed dose with calorimetric methods in this low energy range, ionometric methods are the preferred choice. However, the determination of the absorbed dose to water in water by ionometric methods is difficult in this energy range. With decreasing energy, the relative uncertainty of the photon cross sections increases and as the mass energy transfer coefficients show a steep gradient, the spectra of the radiation field must be known precisely. In this work two ionometric methods to determine the absorbed dose to water are evaluated with respect to their sensitivity to the uncertainties of the spectra and of the atomic database. The first is the measurement of the air kerma free in air and the application of an MC-based conversion factor to the absorbed dose to water. The second is the determination of the absorbed dose to water by means of an extrapolation chamber as an integral part of a phantom. In the complementing MC-calculations, two assortments of spectra each of which is based on a separate unfolding procedure were used as well as two kinds of databases: the standard PEGS and the recently implemented NIST database of EGSnrc. Experimental results were obtained by using a parallel-plate graphite extrapolation chamber and a free-air chamber. In the case when the water kerma in a phantom is determined from the measurements of air kerma free in air, differences in the order of 10% were found, according to which the database or the kind of spectrum is used. In contrast to this, for the second method, the differences found were about 0.5%.

Evaluation of dose area product vs. patient dose in diagnostic X-ray units

Dose Area Product (DAP) meters which measure in units of [Gy*m 2], are widely used in radiology, fluoroscopy and interventional cardiology X-ray units. However, assessment of the radiological hazard to the patient undergoing a given diagnostic procedure cannot be readily obtained from the measured value of DAP. We also developed simple relationships between Entrance Surface Dose (ESD) and the DAP value measured in air, for different collimator field sizes and patient thickness. To establish these relationships, measurements were performed in a water phantom using high-sensitive thermoluminescent detectors (LiF:Mg,Cu,P) calibrated in terms of Kerma in water. Using these relationships developed for a given X-ray unit, calculations of ESD (in mGy) could be performed on the basis of DAP by the X-Ray unit software itself, if the X-ray unit could also evaluate the Focus-to-Skin Distance (FID), e.g. by ultra-sound techniques.

Influence of Photon Energy Spectra from 192Ir and 125I Brachytherapy Sources on Kerma and Dose Rates in Water and Air

Purpose: Several different 192Ir photon energy spectra have been used for both Monte Carlo (MC) simulations of dose deposition and for MC and measured media-energy corrections. However, the dosimetric influence of spectrum choice was not known, and recommendations for the field of medical physics to use a particular 192Ir spectrum are outdated. Furthermore, dosimetric differences between the 125I photon spectrum recommended in the 2004 AAPM TG-43U1 report and that recommended by the National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC) are unknown.

Reference radiochromic film dosimetry in kilovoltage photon beams during CBCT image acquisition

A common approach for dose assessment during cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) acquisition is to use thermoluminescent detectors for skin dose measurements (on patients or phantoms) or ionization chamber (in phantoms) for body dose measurements. However, the benefits of a daily CBCT image acquisition such as margin reduction in planning target volume and the image quality must be weighted against the extra dose received during CBCT acquisitions. The authors describe a two-dimensional reference dosimetry technique for measuring dose from CBCT scans using the on-board imaging system on a Varian Clinac-iX linear accelerator that employs the XR-QA radiochromic film model, specifically designed for dose measurements at low energy photons. The CBCT dose measurements were performed for three different body regions (head and neck, pelvis, and thorax) using humanoid Rando phantom. The authors report on both surface dose and dose profiles measurements during clinical CBCT procedures carried out on a humanoid Rando phantom. Our measurements show that the surface doses per CBCT scan can range anywhere between 0.1 and 4.7 cGy, with the lowest surface dose observed in the head and neck region, while the highest surface dose was observed for the Pelvis spot light CBCT protocol in the pelvic region, on the posterior side of the Rando phantom. The authors also present results of the uncertainty analysis of our XR-QA radiochromic film dosimetry system. Radiochromic film dosimetry protocol described in this work was used to perform dose measurements during CBCT acquisitions with the one-sigma dose measurement uncertainty of up to 3% for doses above 1 cGy. Our protocol is based on film exposure calibration in terms of "air kerma in air," which simplifies both the calibration procedure and reference dosimetry measurements. The results from a full Monte Carlo investigation of the dose conversion of measured XR-QA film dose at the surface into dose to water (or water kerma) at the surface of the phantom indicate that, for typical beam qualities used in CBCT, this conversion can be approximated by simple mass-energy absorption coefficient ratios water-to-air.

Influence of photon energy spectra from brachytherapy sources on Monte Carlo simulations of kerma and dose rates in water and air

For a given radionuclide, there are several photon spectrum choices available to dosimetry investigators for simulating the radiation emissions from brachytherapy sources. This study examines the dosimetric influence of selecting the spectra for 192Ir, 125I, and 103Pd on the final estimations of kerma and dose. For 192Ir, 125I, and 103Pd, the authors considered from two to five published spectra. Spherical sources approximating common brachytherapy sources were assessed. Kerma and dose results from GEANT4, MCNP5, and PENELOPE-2008 were compared for water and air. The dosimetric influence of 192Ir, 125I, and 103Pd spectral choice was determined. For the spectra considered, there were no statistically significant differences between kerma or dose results based on Monte Carlo code choice when using the same spectrum. Water-kerma differences of about 2%, 2%, and 0.7% were observed due to spectrum choice for 192Ir, 125, and 103Pd, respectively (independent of radial distance), when accounting for photon yield per Bq. Similar differences were observed for air-kerma rate. However, their ratio (as used in the dose-rate constant) did not significantly change when the various photon spectra were selected because the differences compensated each other when dividing dose rate by air-kerma strength. Given the standardization of radionuclide data available from the National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC) and the rigorous infrastructure for performing and maintaining the data set evaluations, NNDC spectra are suggested for brachytherapy simulations in medical physics applications.

Report of AAPM Therapy Physics Committee Task Group 74: In‐air output ratio, , for megavoltage photon beams

The concept of in-air output ratio (Sc) was introduced to characterize how the incident photon fluence per monitor unit (or unit time for a Co-60 unit) varies with collimator settings. However, there has been much confusion regarding the measurement technique to be used that has prevented the accurate and consistent determination of Sc. The main thrust of the report is to devise a theoretical and measurement formalism that ensures interinstitutional consistency of Sc. The in-air output ratio, Sc, is defined as the ratio of primary collision water kerma in free-space, Kp, per monitor unit between an arbitrary collimator setting and the reference collimator setting at the same location. Miniphantoms with sufficient lateral and longitudinal thicknesses to eliminate electron contamination and maintain transient electron equilibrium are recommended for the measurement of Sc. The authors present a correction formalism to extrapolate the correct Sc from the measured values using high-Z miniphantom. Miniphantoms made of high-Z material are used to measure Sc for small fields (e.g., IMRT or stereotactic radiosurgery). This report presents a review of the components of Sc, including headscatter, source-obscuring, and monitor-backscattering effects. A review of calculation methods (Monte Carlo and empirical) used to calculate Sc for arbitrary shaped fields is presented. The authors discussed the use of Sc in photon dose calculation algorithms, in particular, monitor unit calculation. Finally, a summary of Sc data (from RPC and other institutions) is included for QA purposes.

EGSnrc‐based Monte Carlo dosimetry of CSA1 and CSA2 brachytherapy source models

AAPM TG-56 recommends the use of a specific dosimetric dataset for each brachytherapy source model. In this study, a full dosimetric dataset for indigenously developed 137Cs source models, namely, the CSA1 and CSA2, in accordance with the AAPM TG-43U1 formalism is presented. The study includes calculation of dose-to-kerma ratio D/K in water around these sources including stainless steel encapsulated 137Cs sources such as RTR, 3M, and selectron/LDR 137Cs. The Monte Carlo-based EGSnrcMP code system is employed for modeling the sources in vacuum and in water. Calculations of air-kerma strength, S(K) for the investigated sources and collision kerma in water along the transverse axis of the RTR source are based on the FLURZnrc code. Simulations of water-kerma and dose in water for the CSA1, CSA2, RTR, 3M, and selectron/ LDR 137Cs sources are carried out using the DOSRZnrc code. In DOSRZnrc calculations, water-kerma and dose are scored in a cylindrical water phantom having dimensions of 80 cm diameter x 80 cm height. The calculated dose-rate constants for the CSA1 and CSA2 sources are 0.945(1) and 1.023(1) cGy/(h U), respectively. The calculated value of S(K) per unit source activity, S(K)/A for the CSA1 and CSA2 sources is 7.393(7) x 10(-8) cGy cm2/(h Bq). The EGSnrcMP-based collision kerma rates for the RTR source along the transverse axis (0.25-10 cm) agree with the corresponding GEANT4-based published values within 0.5%. Anisotropy profiles of the CSA1 and CSA2 sources are significantly different from those of other sources. For the selectron/LDR single pellet 137Cs spherical source (modeled as a cylindrical pellet with dimensions similar to the seed selectron), the values of D/K at 1 and 1.25 mm from the capsule are 1.023(1) and 1.029(1), respectively. The value of D/K at 1 mm from the CSA1, CSA2, RTR, and 3M 137Cs source capsules (all sources have an external radius of 1.5 mm) is 1.017(1) and this ratio is applicable to axial positions z = 0 to z = -L/2. This is in contrast to a published GEANT4-based Monte Carlo dosimetric study on RTR and 3M 137Cs sources wherein the authors have assumed that collision kerma is approximately equal to absorbed dose at 1 mm from the source capsules. Collision kerma is approximately equal to absorbed dose for distances > or = 2 mm from source capsules as opposed to > or = 1 mm reported in published studies. A detailed electron transport is necessary up to 2 mm from source capsules. The Monte Carlo-calculated dose-rate data for the CSA1 and CSA2 sources can be used as input data for treatment planning or to verify the calculations by radiotherapy treatment planning system.

A method to determine the water kerma in a phantom for x-rays with energies up to 40 keV

In brachytherapy, as in any form of radiation therapy, accurate dosimetry in terms of absorbed dose to water is required. The output of brachytherapy sources has, up to now, been specified as the reference air kerma rate at 1 m distance. For this reason, the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt is developing a primary standard to determine the absorbed dose to water at the point of measurement within a water phantom. A candidate for the standard to be newly established is a water-equivalent parallel-plate ionization chamber with continuously adjustable electrode spacing, forming an extrapolation chamber in a phantom of water-equivalent material.In this work, a method is introduced to determine the absorbed dose to water with an extrapolation chamber in a phantom of water-equivalent material. Thereby, a conversion factor C(xi+1, xi) is applied to the difference of the ionization charges measured at two different plate separations xi and xi+1. In contrast to already described methods, the applied method is based on fundamental dosimetric relations without the use of a wall-less chamber approximation. It will be shown that by using the wall-less chamber approximation, a term contributing to the absorbed dose to water is overlooked. This term is given by the net energy fluence of the secondary electrons at the surface of the measuring volume.The introduced method is verified experimentally by a comparison with water kerma values obtained from air kerma measurements free in air and applying a conversion factor to water kerma obtained by Monte Carlo (MC) calculations for the conditions of the experiment. Evidence is produced showing that the new model significantly increases the consistency of experimental and MC results.

Towards a determination of the absorbed dose to water in water for low-energy photon-emitting brachytherapy seeds

An accurate determination of the dose produced by brachytherapy seeds emitting low-energy photons is an important component of the radiotherapeutic process. As yet, the output of these seeds has usually been specified in terms of the air kerma rate. The desired quantity in radiation therapy is, however, the absorbed dose to water inside a water phantom, for which primary standards are not available.For this reason, developments are under way in the Physikalisch- Technische Bundesanstalt to establish a primary standard to determine the absorbed dose to water within a phantom. As a fundamental step towards this aim, a method will be introduced in this publication to determine the water kerma inside a graphite phantom housing an extrapolation chamber. Experimental results will be presented and compared with water kerma values obtained from air kerma measurements in free air and applying a conversion factor to water kerma for the conditions of the experiment. First estimates indicate that the relative uncertainty is of the order of 1% (k = 1).

SU‐FF‐T‐18: A Method for Determining the Water Kerma in a Graphite Phantom for X‐Rays with Up to 50 KV Tube Voltages

Purpose: The Physikalisch‐Technische Bundesantalt (PTB) is developing a primary standard for the realization unit of the absorbed dose to water for low‐energy photon‐emitting brachytherapy seeds. As a first step towards this aim, an extrapolation chamber is used for the determination of the water kerma inside the phantom. Method and Materials: The water kerma in a graphite phantom has been measured by means of an extrapolation chamber and using a novel Monte Carlo based evaluation method. In essence it consists of a measurement of the air kerma in the phantom under secondary electron equilibrium, i.e. for large plate separations. The air kerma is converted to the water kerma for the case of zero plate separation. In order to verify this method a measurement of the air kerma free in air was made which was converted to the water kerma in the graphite phantom again by Monte Carlo calculations. Results: The comparison of the water kerma values in a graphite phantom, which are obtained by in phantom and free in air measurements shows an agreement of both methods within their combined uncertainty. The uncertainty of the presented method is approximately 1% (k=1). Conclusion: The good agreement found in the comparison supports the new evaluation method. In future work it is planned to calibrate a suitable secondary standard in terms of water kerma by means of the extrapolation chamber and using this device in the radiation field of I‐125 seeds.

SU-FF-T-272: Low-Energy Photon Dose Calculations Using Various MCNP Photon Databases: Dose Comparison Between MCNP, PENELOPE, and EGSnrc

Purpose: Recent releases of the MCNP5 and PENELOPE (2001) Monte Carlo codes use photo‐atomic data from the most updated EPDL97 library, and include Doppler broadening in Compton scattering processes. Such advances in photondatabases and transport algorithm are particularly important in low‐energy photon dose calculations. Method and Materials: We computed radial dose distributions for r = 0.2–10 cm from a point source in a 50 cm‐diameter sphere of water. Nine discrete energies for primary photon sources were chosen in the range of 10–150 keV. To isolate the effects of updated photoelectric data, Doppler broadening, bound electron model, and kerma approximation, we varied transport parameters and photondatabases in the same simulation geometry using MCNP5 and MCNP4 with LIB04, LIB03, or LIB02 photondatabases, PENELOPE, and EGSnrc. Results: The results from MCNP5/LIB04 agreed with those of PENELOPE within statistical uncertainties (±1%) over the entire ranges of energies and radial distances investigated. They also agree well with EGSnrc data within about ±2% (except for doses at 10 keV). MCNP/LIB02 or LIB03, on the other hand, produced doses up to 8% lower in the range of 20–80 keV than MCNP/LIB04 and PENELOPE. Such differences stem primarily from the differences in the photoelectric data used. The dosimetric effects of Doppler broadening and bound electron model for Compton interactions appear to be insignificant in the energy range investigated. Kerma calculated by photon only transport well approximates absorbed dose in water within statistical uncertainties (±1%) except for primary photons of E = 10 keV. Conclusion: Low‐energy photon dose and kerma in water calculated by MCNP5 and MCNP4 with the updated photondatabase (LIB04) are comparable to doses by PENELOPE and EGSnrc.