Glacier Water Research Articles

Distribution of cold and temperate ice and water in glaciers at Nordenskiöld Land, Svalbard, according to data on ground-based radio-echo sounding

Abstract The distribution of cold and temperate ice and water in polythermal glaciers is an important characteristic in studying their thermal regime, hydrology, and response to climate change. Data analysis of ground-based radio-echo sounding of 16 glaciers in Nordenskiöld Land in Spitsbergen shows that 5 of them are of cold type and 12 are of polythermal type. The mean thickness of cold and temperate ice in polythermal glaciers varies from 11±2 to 66±6 m and from 6±2 to 96±9 m, respectively, and their ratio varies from 0.30 to 5.31. The volume of temperate ice in polythermal glaciers varies from 0.0009 to 3.733 (±10%) km3. With water content of 2% in temperate ice in these glaciers they might contain in total up to ~93.5 × 106 m3 of liquid water. Radar data suggest the greater water content or greater size of water inclusions in near-bottom temperate ice.

Fluid geochemistry of the Cuopu high temperature geothermal system in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis with implication on its genesis

High-temperature geothermal fluids dissolve constituents pertinent to water-rock interaction and magmatic volatile absorption, resulting in high total dissolved solid (TDS) values. However, this study focuses on the hydrochemical evolution of the low-salinity HCO3–Na type high-temperature geothermal fluid in Cuopu, eastern Himalayas. The geothermal water is recharged by local precipitation and glacier water from surrounding mountains. The TDS values are below 834 mg/L and the constituents are mainly products of the water-carbon dioxide-rock interactions lacking magmatic volatile dissolved in the fluid. The geothermal water reaches an almost complete chemical equilibrium with the feldspar or plagioclase-enriched reservoir rock in a reducing condition. The reservoir temperature is between 175 °C–200 °C, while the temperature could reach up to 400 °C in the deep crustas indicated by the carbon isotopic exchange equilibrium between CO2 and CH4. The infiltrated glacier water was heated during its circulation within the hot thickened crust and continued dissolving the crustal metamorphic gas, such as radiogenic helium and limestone metamorphic CO2, until the junction of the two sets of faults provided an ascending channel for it. Upon rising along the conduit, the geothermal water mixed with cold groundwater to different degrees. Approximately 0.015 mol/L CO2 escaped from the geothermal fluid when it scattered as bubbling hot springs on the surface of the anisotropic porous Quaternary sediments. Such kind ofhydrochemical evolution of lowsalinity alkaline HCO3–Na type water represents a typical formation mechanism of the high-temperature geothermal systems along the Himalayas.

The role of precipitation and air temperature in the formation of summer runoff

This article focuses on the analysis of the formation of river flow in the summer period, in which there is the greatest need for water to meet agricultural needs and there is the maximum contribution of glacier water to the total flow. To identify the influence of air temperature and precipitation in different summer months and in general for June-August, calculated were correlation coefficients between climate elements and the water content of watercourses. The steady dependence of the runoff on air temperature, both for individual months and the summer period, is generally characteristic only of the Chon and Kichi Naryn river basins.

An assessment of climate change impacts on glacier mass balance and geometry in the Chandra Basin, Western Himalaya for the 21st century

The Himalayan glaciers are a major source of Perennial River systems in South Asia and the retreat of these glaciers under climate change could directly affect millions of people who depend on them. In this study, we assess the glacier mass balance, area and volume changes at basin scale for the Chandra Basin in the western Himalaya due to projected climate change in the 21st century. The Chandra basin occupies ∼2440 km2 of area and hosts ∼200 glaciers and 23 small villages. The multi-model projections used in this study indicate a temperature increase of 2.2 °C–2.9 °C and 4.3 °C–6 °C for the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios by the end of the century with a steady or decreasing trend in snowfall in the basin. In response to the projected climate, the basin is likely to retain only 50%–52% (RCP 4.5) and 40%–45% (RCP 8.5) of the areal extent of glaciers by the end of the century. Corresponding volumes of glacier water retained are much lower at 40%–43% and 29%–34%, but the volume loss could be as high as 97% for low altitude glaciers. Overall, our study highlights the likely severe impacts to water resources in the Himalaya if CO2 emissions follow the high-emission scenario of RCP8.5.

Оценка заозёренности Западно-Сибирской равнины на основе глобального массива данных о водной поверхности Global Surface Water

Basing on the Global Surface Water data set on the Earth’s inland waters, a description of the calculation method for the density of the lakes is provided. The technique is based on the calculation of the water surface area in a local neighborhood by the sliding window method and on the sequential application of a number of standard geospatial analysis operations. The method allows obtaining cartograms of surface-grading with a resolution of 200 to 10 000 m in any area. Using the example of West Siberian Plain, the heterogeneity of the lakes’ spatial distribution is assessed. On the basis of comparison with old results (received 40 years ago), we can distinguish the general trend of dewatering, which is manifested for off-grained back-ground areas in reducing the share of lakes from 2,2 to 1,71 %. The analysis of detailed cartograms at the 1000 and 2500 m resolution allows correcting the boundaries of large geomorphological elements, such as blowing corridors, hollows of glacier water, and areas with the highest ice cover glaciation.

The influence of glacier meltwater on the hydrological effect of glacial lakes in Mountain Cryosphere

冰川融水通过热量、水、物质传输对山地冰冻圈冰湖水文效应产生影响，引起广泛关注.本文从山地冰冻圈冰湖的水量、物理化学性质、生物等方面系统总结冰川融水对冰湖水文效应的影响.冰川融水被冰湖滞留能在一定程度上延缓区域冰川水资源的亏损，但也直接导致了潜在危险性冰湖数量和危险程度增大.冰川融水对冰湖物理性质的影响主要表现在降低湖水温度、影响透明度/浊度、改变湖水密度、造成湖水热力分层现象等方面，对冰湖化学性质的影响主要表现在增加湖水中的氮素、溶解有机物、持久性有机污染物、各类离子和重金属等，进而影响冰湖生物的分布、组成、结构和功能.深入系统地开展冰川融水及其变化对冰湖水文效应研究，对冰川水文与水资源、山地冰冻圈生态环境研究具有重要意义.;Much attention has been attracted on the glacier meltwater due to its influence on the hydrological effect of glacial lakes through heat, water and material transmission in Mountain Cryosphere. We summarized the impacts of glacier meltwater on the hydrological effects with respects to the water quantity, physicochemical properties and biology of glacial lake in this paper. A certain amount of glacier water resources has been temporarily held resulted by the meltwater direct inflowing into glacial lakes, which retarded the loss water resources in the glaciated area to some extent on one hand, increased the number and hazardousness of the potential dangerous glacial lakes on the other hand. Glacier meltwater affects both physical and chemical properties of glacial lakes. Meltwater normally reduced lake temperature, disturbed lake transparency/turbidity, and facilitated thermal stratification of the glacial lake. Meltwater also increased the contents of nitrogen, dissolved organic matter, persistent organic pollutants, ion concentrations and heavy metals in the glacial lake water, influenced the distribution, composition, structure and function of glacial lake organisms and ecosystem. An in-depth and systematic research on the impacts of glacier meltwater and its changes on hydrological effect of glacial lakes, is of great significant to the glacier hydrology, water resources and ecological environment study of Mountain Cryosphere.

Occurrence and distribution of old and new halogenated flame retardants in mosses and lichens from the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica.

The spatial distribution of old and new halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), and Dechlorane Plus (DPs) and related compounds (Dechloranes), were investigated in the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica, employing mosses (Andreaea depressinervis and Sanionia uncinata) and lichens (Himantormia lugubris and Usnea antarctica) as bioindicators. The levels of PBDEs, HBCDs, and Dechloranes ranged from 3.2 to 71.5, 0.63-960, and 2.04-2400 pg/g dw (dry weight) in the mosses, and from 1.5 to 188, 0.1-21.1, and 1.0-83.8 pg/g dw in the lichens, respectively. HFRs were detected in all of the collected samples, even in those from the remote regions. The dominance of high brominated-BDE, anti-DP fraction, and HBCD diastereomeric ratio in the samples from remote regions suggested the long-range atmospheric transport (LRAT) of the HFRs. The relatively high HBCDs and Dechloranes contamination and their similar chemical profile with commercial products in the vicinity of Antarctic research stations indicated that human activities might act as local sources, while PBDEs appeared to be more influenced by LRAT and bioaccumulation rather than local emission. Lastly, the relatively high HFR levels and dominance of more brominated BDEs at the Narębski Point and in the wet lowlands suggested that penguin colonies and melting glacier water could be secondary HFR sources in Antarctica. The HFR levels differed by sample species, suggesting that further research on the factors associated with the HFR accumulation in the different species is necessary. This study firstly reports the alternative HFR levels in a wide area of the Antarctica, which could improve our understanding of the source, transport, and fate of the HFRs.

The distribution and hydrological significance of rock glaciers in the Nepalese Himalaya

Abstract In the Nepalese Himalaya, there is little information on the number, spatial distribution and morphometric characteristics of rock glaciers, and this information is required if their hydrological contribution is to be understood. Based on freely available fine spatial resolution satellite data accessible through Google Earth, we produced the first comprehensive Nepalese rock glacier inventory, supported through statistical validation and field survey. The inventory includes the location of over 6000 rock glaciers, with a mean specific density of 3.4%. This corresponds to an areal coverage of 1371 km 2 . Our approach subsampled approximately 20% of the total identified rock glacier inventory ( n = 1137) and digitised their outlines so that quantitative/qualitative landform attributes could be extracted. Intact landforms (containing ice) accounted for 68% of the subsample, and the remaining were classified as relict (not containing ice). The majority (56%) were found to have a northerly aspect (NE, N, and NW), and landforms situated within north- to west-aspects reside at lower elevations than those with south- to- east aspects. In Nepal, we show that rock glaciers are situated between 3225 and 5675 m a.s.l., with the mean minimum elevation at the front estimated to be 4977 ± 280 m a.s.l. for intact landforms and 4541 ± 346 m a.s.l. for relict landforms. The hydrological significance of rock glaciers in Nepal was then established by statistically upscaling the results from the subsample to estimate that these cryospheric reserves store between 16.72 and 25.08 billion m 3 of water. This study, for the first time, estimates rock glacier water volume equivalents and evaluates their relative hydrological importance in comparison to ice glaciers. Across the Nepalese Himalaya, rock glacier to ice glacier water volume equivalent is 1:9, and generally increases westwards (e.g., ratio = 1:3, West region). This inventory represents a preliminary step for understanding the spatial distribution and the geomorphic conditions necessary for rock glacier formation in the Himalaya. With continued climatically-driven ice glacier recession, the relative importance of rock glaciers in the Nepalese Himalaya will potentially increase.

Man's artificial glacier—a way forward toward water harvesting for pre and post sowing irrigation to facilitate early sowing of wheat in cold arid Himalayan deserts of Ladakh

AbstractUnavailability of irrigation water for early sowing has remained a constant problem in cold arid deserts of Ladakh. In order to get a solution to this problem, a 2-yr farmers’ participatory research trial with best bet agronomic management on artificial glacier water harvesting technology was conducted. The technology involves collecting water from natural glaciers that melt during late December. The water is diverted toward a shed constructed with stone embankments set up at regular intervals. The area is chosen where there is minimum interference of solar radiation, generally between two mountain slopes or ridge that is on the leeward side. The melted water is that melts from the natural glacier impeded by the embankments and get frozen here. This frozen water starts melting in late March and is used for both pre sowing and initial crop water requirement. It also ensures early sowing of wheat by creating additional 45-day window which leads to introduction of long- and medium-duration wheat varieties to replace decades old locally grown short-duration varieties. The work was initiated with a benchmark survey of 100 farmers to get an understanding of present irrigation scenario, crop management practices and date of sowing. Data from 99 farmer participating trial of wheat conducted after or from bench mark survey clearly indicated that the effect of water shortage can be seen on yield and yield attributing characters due to unavailability of pre sowing irrigation and water requirement at imperative growth stages and may also lead to terminal heat stress in wheat crop. Out of total number of irrigations applied, initial two irrigations can be compensated by artificial glacier water harvesting technique, leading to a revolution in the agriculture scenario of the tribal population by introduction of long- and medium-duration wheat varieties in cold arid desert of Ladakh for the very first time. It was observed that wheat seeding done in first fortnight of April gave better yields in comparison to late seeded wheat. Moreover, the long-duration varieties (LDVs) or medium-duration varieties (MDVs) sown under late condition gave better yield in comparison to locally grown short-duration varieties sown at same time. Yield potential of LDVs and MDVs of wheat under late sowing was found quite low in comparison to early-sown wheat, still when compared with the performance of locally grown wheat the yields were more even if the local varieties were sown early. The outcome of this study will help the farmers of tribal, cold arid community in harvesting better wheat yields by timely sowing of the wheat crop accompanied with better bet agronomic management practices. Government initiative is further required to ensure better outreach of complete crop management strategies to the tribal farming community of the region in order to ensure food security and improve their socioeconomic status.

Distribution and genesis of the eastern Tibetan Plateau geothermal belt, western China

More than 185 hot springs have been recently discovered in the eastern Tibetan Plateau geothermal belt (also called the Kangding–Litang–Batang geothermal belt) (98–102°E, 28–32°N). Among them, more than 60% of springs have temperatures of >40 °C, and 11 springs have temperature higher than the local water boiling point. These hot springs are mostly exposed near the fault or valley areas, as bandings in reservoirs of Triassic carbonate rocks and clastic quartz sandstone or in fractured granite and intrusive rocks. The geothermal belt can be subdivided into the Batang–Xiangcheng geothermal field, the Ganzi–Litang geothermal field, and the Luhuo–Kangding geothermal field, which are controlled by the Jinsa fault, Xiangcheng fault, Litang fault, and Xianshuihe fault, respectively. Radiogenic heat from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic granites, possible ductile crustal flow beneath the lower crust, and frictional heat generated by active strike-slipping along faults are the significant heat resources for the geothermal genesis. Frictional heat caused by the slipping along the Xianshuihe fault is the main thermal source for the Luhuo–Kangding geothermal field, whereas magma melting heat is the main source for the Batang–Xiangcheng geothermal field. Glacier water and river water are the main water supply sources, and the fracture serves as the main channel for runoff and hot water flow. The activity intensity and magnitude of the Kangding–Litang–Batang geothermal anomaly were lower than those of the geothermal fields of Yangbajing and Tengchong in the central and southern Tibetan Plateau, respectively, which indicates that the eastern Tibetan Plateau has a strong heat flow background.

Состояние устьевых участков рек республики Абхазия и их влияние на побережье Чёрного моря

Изучение устьевых участков рек Абхазии в районе черноморского побережья актуально в связи с их важной ролью в фор-мировании качества воды Чёрного моря и сохранении биологического разнообразия. В 2013–2014 гг. по теме гранта РФФИ исследованы устьевые участки ряда крупных (Бзыбь, Кодор, Гумиста, Келасур, Гализга) и средних (Аапста, Хыпста, Басла и др.) рек Абхазии, оказывающих значительное влияние на экологическое состояние побережья Чёрного моря вследствие выноса твёрдого стока. В ходе исследований устьевых участков 35 рек, впадающих в Чёрное море на побережье Абхазии, выявлены их гидрологические особенности. Максимальный расход воды отмечен для реки Кодор. Даже в меженный период расход воды в устьевых участках составляет от 0,323 до 161,3 м3/с. Мутность в речных водах в межень составляла 0,003 –0,010 г/м3, для реки Келасур – 0,28 г/м3. Для рек Абхазии характерен гидрокарбонатно-кальциевый тип вод, минерализация воды большинства рек является средней. Наилучшим качеством воды характеризовалась р. Гализга, Репруа, Гвандра и Ха-шипса. В фитопланктоне исследованных устьевых участков рек выявлено 84 таксона рангом ниже рода, в зоопланктоне – 19 видов, в зообентосе – 105 видов и в ихтиофауне 23 вида. По фитопланктону большинство рек относится к олиготрофным. При использовании организмов зообентоса в качестве биоидикаторов выявлены реки с неблагоприятными условиями (р. Сухумка, Аапста, Мааниквара и др.). Выявлено, что локальное воздействие на качество вод Чёрного моря оказывают реки, испытывающие загрязнение от поступления сточных вод, отходов и испытывающие воздействие выпаса скота. Реки Бзыбь, Кодор, Келасур и Гализга привносят большие объёмы высококачественных горно-ледниковых вод, которые способствуют улучшению состояния побережья Чёрного моря.

Trace Elements Contamination and Human Health Risk Assessment in Drinking Water from the Agricultural and Pastoral Areas of Bay County, Xinjiang, China.

Tap water samples were collected from 180 families in four agricultural (KYR: Keyir, KRW: Kariwak, YTR: Yatur, DW: Dawanqi) and two pastoral areas (B: Bulong and Y: Yangchang) in Bay County, Xinjiang, China, and levels of seven trace elements (Cd, Cr, As Ni, Pb, Zn, Se) were analyzed using inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to assess potential health risks. Remarkable spatial variations of contamination were observed. Overall, the health risk was more severe for carcinogenic versus non-carcinogenic pollutants due to heavy metal. The risk index was greater for children overall (Cr > As > Cd and Zn > Se for carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic elements, respectively). The total risk index was greater in agricultural areas (DW > KYR > YTR > KRW > B > Y). Total risk indices were greater where well water was the source versus fountain water; for the latter, the total health risk index was greater versus glacier water. Main health risk factors were Cr and As in DW, KYR, YTR, KRW, and B, and Zn, Cr, and As in the Y region. Overall, total trace element–induced health risk (including for DW adults) was higher than acceptable (10−6) and lower than priority risk levels (10−4) (KYR, YTR, KRW, Y, and B). For DW children, total health risk reached 1.08 × 10−4, higher than acceptable and priority risk levels (10−4).

Direct and indirect effects of glaciers on aquatic biodiversity in high Andean peatlands.

The rapid melting of glacier cover is one of the most obvious impacts of climate change on alpine ecosystems and biodiversity. Our understanding of the impact of a decrease in glacier runoff on aquatic biodiversity is currently based on the 'glacier-heterogeneity-diversity' paradigm, according to which there is high α-diversity at intermediate levels of glacial influence due to the high degree of environmental heterogeneity caused by glacier water. This α-diversity pattern generates high levels of between-site aquatic community variation (high β diversity) and increases regional diversity (γ-diversity). There is a rich conceptual background in favor of this paradigm, but empirical data supporting it are scarce. We investigated this paradigm by analyzing the different diversity patterns (α, β and γ-diversity) of four aquatic groups (zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, algae and macrophytes) living in high-elevation peatlands (>4500m above sea level). We sampled 200 pools from 20 peatlands along a glacier gradient in the Cordillera Real of Bolivia. We performed structural equationmodeling (SEM) to analyze the potential mechanisms underlying the observed diversity patterns. Intermediate levels of glacial influence (15-20% cover) resulted in high heterogeneity, but α-diversity responded to glacial influence only for the zooplankton group (Cladocera). Our SEM analysis did not identify environmental heterogeneity as a significant variable explaining the relationship between glacier and α-diversity. Peatland area had a strong positive effect on heterogeneity and diversity. β-diversity was significantly associated with glacier gradient, and 12.9% of the total regional diversity (γ-diversity) was restricted to peatlands with a high degree of glacial influence. These species might be lost in a context of glacial retreat. These findings provide new insight into the potential effects of glacial retreat on the aquatic environment and biodiversity in the peatlands of the tropical Andes.

Remote assessment of reserve capacity of outburst alpine lakes

Results of distant satellite sounding (the TERRA satellite) of high-mountainous areas and digital models SRTM 4.1 and ASTER DEM G2 of the same relief were used to calculate the following parameters of high-mountain dammed glacial lakes: area, depth, the water volume, excess of the dam above the water level. It is important for estimation of the water volume that can be dangerous for a break-through of a dammed lake. Formulas deduced to calculate the depth and volume of a lake for several sections of its area were tested and proposed. It is demonstrated that the regression equation V = Hmax × F, where Hmax is maximum depth of the lake, can be used as the parameterization of the formula «lake volume V equals the product of the area F on average depth D». More precise values of the coefficients a and b in the formula V = aFb were also obtained. Parameters and the water volumes of lakes were estimated for the river Gunt (right tributary of Pyanj River) basin. According to [28], there are 428 high-mountain lakes in this region with their total area ≥ 2500 m2. For basin Inflow of melted snow and glacier water caused by the rise of mean summer air temperatures in 1931–2015 was estimated for the lake Rivankul basin (the Pamir Mountains).

Local background climate determining the dynamics of plateau lakes in China

Lakes under natural conditions are potential indicators of climate change, but limited evidence has been proposed to explicitly explain the mechanisms of large-scale lake changes associated with climate. In this paper, satellite imageries from the 1970s to 2010 were compared to track the dynamic change patterns of plateau lakes. It aims to identify the forcing of climate change on the lakes in plateau regions of China. Results revealed that: (1) widespread expanding trends in the area and abundance of lakes on wetter plateau regions, by increasing precipitation and snow presented a positive effect on lake levels, as well as warming resulted glacier melting and permafrost degrading contributed to expansion of lakes in the regions covered by glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau by 58–62 % and of 13–20 % on the western Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang Plateau; (2) shrinkage lakes in the main portion of the arid regions were mainly caused by the decreasing wind speed resulted water balance change, irrigation and other human utilization of water resources. Although precipitation decreased, wind speed also has the most dominant impact on decreasing evaporation, followed by solar radiation, both of which offset the effect of increasing temperature, especially in eastern Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang Plateau; (3) thawing permafrost led to shrinkage of lakes in an area of seasonal permafrost, the shrinking and splitting of lakes in a discontinuous permafrost zone, and the rising of lake levels in an area of continuous permafrost; (4) the future of the plateau lakes under climate change must be in question, because the glacier and snow melting water is not sustainable for wetter regions, and the increasing water consumption caused by the farmland expansion for arid regions.

Modeling Groundwater Depletion at Regional and Global Scales: Present State and Future Prospects

Except for frozen water in ice and glaciers, groundwater is the world’s largest distributed store of freshwater and has strategic importance to global food and water security. In this paper, the most recent advances quantifying groundwater depletion (GWD) are comprehensively reviewed. This paper critically evaluates the recently advanced modeling approaches estimating GWD at regional and global scales, and the evidence of feedbacks to the Earth system including sea-level rise associated with GWD. Finally, critical challenges and opportunities in the use of groundwater are identified for the adaption to growing food demand and uncertain climate.

Reconstruction of glacier fluctuations in the East Sayan, Baikalsky and Kodar Ridges (East Siberia, Russia) during the last 210 years based on high-resolution geochemical proxies from proglacial lake bottom sediments

We have presented results of study of bottom sediments of the proglacial lakes enriched with meltwater of Peretolchin Glacier (the East Sayan Ridge), Chersky Glacier (the Baikalsky Ridge) and glaciers of the Kodar Ridge. Bottom sediments formed from the end of the Little Ice Age to 2013 were investigated with time resolution in year-season, using X-ray fluorescence with synchrotron radiation and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Depth–age models of the cores were estimated from year laminate layers, using 210Pb and 137Cs chronology. Intense glacier thawing was calculated from the amount of clastic matter supplied by glacier meltwater into proglacial lakes. A high content of some elements was closely associated with clastic material (e.g. Rb, Zr, Nb, Y or Th) in bottom sediments, and most likely these elements affected the intensity of glacier melting. We have defined three periods in significant increase of glacier flow/melting during the last 210 years. The first period (ca. 1800–1890), supply of suspended material by meltwater into Lake Ekhoy (the East Sayan Ridge) and Lake Preobrazhenskoe (the Kodar Ridge), was not intense until 1850 and 1875, respectively. However, the rate of meltwater supply into Lake Izumrudnoe (the Baikalsky Ridge) was high during the Little Ice Age, and it is likely attributed to local moisture from Lake Baikal. The regional glacier water balances were most likely positive during the second period (ca. 1890–1940). The third period (ca. 1940–till present) was characterised by moderate melting rate of glaciers located on the Kodar and Baikalsky Ridges, in contrast to Peretolchin Glacier that demonstrated the highest rate of melting and changes in outlines during this period.

Isotopic and hydrochemical composition of runoff in the Urumqi River, Tianshan Mountains, China

Natural tracers can be used in arid regions to gain an understanding of streamflow generation and seasonal streamflow sources; their application can support water resources management, water quality studies, and assessments of the impacts of climate change. In this study, we identified hydrological processes in different seasons based on the chemical and isotopic compositions of the Urumqi River. Stable isotope (18O and D) ratios and major ion concentrations were measured on a monthly basis at six sites along the Urumqi River from December 2011 to October 2012. Most waters (groundwater, precipitation, glacier, meltwater, and river water) of the Urumqi River basin are the Ca–HCO3 water type. In the slow flow period, the ionic composition of the river water reflects weathering and dissolution of dolomite and gypsum. Water–rock interactions control the hydrochemical processes during the slow flow period, while the hydrochemical characteristics of river water in the quick flow period are controlled by precipitation, glacier water, and groundwater. The seasonal variation in river δ18O and δD values at different sites was similar to that of water entering the headwaters of the Urumqi River basin. The isotopic composition of precipitation was evaluated to obtain information on the effects of subcloud evaporation and moisture recycling on the formation and isotopic composition of precipitation in arid climatic conditions. We identified five different periods in streamflow using water chemistry and isotopic composition.

A Stepwise, Participatory Approach to Design and Implement Community Based Adaptation to Drought in the Peruvian Andes

The livelihoods of people in the Andes are expected to be affected by climate change due to their dependence on glacier water. The observed decrease in glacier volume over the last few decades is likely to accelerate during the current century, which will affect water availability in the region. This paper presents an approach for participatory development of community-based adaptation measures to cope with the projected impacts of climate change. It combines in an innovative manner participatory design with physical measurements, modeling and a vulnerability analysis. Vulnerability to drought is made operational for households in a catchment of the Ocoña River basin in Peru. On the basis of a household survey (n = 94) we explore how a vulnerability index (risk divided by response efficacy) can be used to assess the distribution of vulnerability over households, and how socio-economic factors determine this vulnerability. Water entitlement, area of irrigated land, income and education are all significantly correlated with vulnerability to drought. The research showed that the main source of spring water is local rainwater, and that water use efficiency is low. The selected adaptation measures aimed to increase water availability close to farmland, and increase water use efficiency of farmers and households.

Rock Glaciers as Water Stores in the Bolivian Andes: An Assessment of Their Hydrological Importance

Water scarcity is a growing issue for high altitude arid countries like Bolivia, where serious water resource concerns exist because of climate change and population growth. In this study we use a recent Bolivian rock glacier inventory (Rangecroft et al., 2014) to estimate the water equivalent storage of these understudied cryospheric reserves. This paper shows that Bolivian rock glaciers currently store between 11.7 and 137 million cubic meters of water. Rock glacier water equivalents are compared to corresponding ice glacier water equivalent to allow an assessment of the hydrological importance of rock glaciers as water stores in this water scarce region. It can be seen that in the densely glaciated Cordillera Real (15°–16°S) rock glaciers form a small component of mountain water stores; however, along the Cordillera Occidental (17°–22°S), where ice glaciers are absent, rock glaciers are a more important part of the cryospheric water store, suggesting that they could be important for local water management. This is the first time that the water equivalence of the Bolivian rock glacier store has been quantified and is a first step toward assessing the contribution and importance of alternative high altitude water sources.