Water Energy Food Nexus Research Articles

Urban Living Labs: how to enable inclusive transdisciplinary research?

The Urban Living Lab (ULL) approach has the potential to create enabling environments for social learning and to be a successful arena for innovative local collaboration in knowledge co-creation and experimentation in the context of research and practice in sustainability transitions. Nevertheless, complex issues such as the urban Food-Water-Energy (FWE) Nexus present a challenge to the realization of such ULL, especially regarding their inclusiveness.We present ULL as a frame for a local knowledge co-creation and participation approach based on the project "Creating Interfaces - Building capacity for integrated governance at the Food-Water-Energy-nexus in cities on the water". This project aims at making FWE Nexus linkages better understandable to the stakeholders (citizens and associations, city government, science, businesses), and to facilitate cooperation and knowledge exchange among them. This paper focuses on and discusses inclusiveness as a key aspect and challenge of ULLs and on what literature and our experiences in this regard suggest for the advancement of the concept of ULL towards ULL 2.0. These findings often also relate to framing transdisciplinary research in a wider sense.

A clustering approach to improve spatial representation in water-energy-food models

Currently available water-energy-food (WEF) modelling frameworks to analyse cross-sectoral interactions often share one or more of the following gaps: (a) lack of integration between sectors, (b) coarse spatial representation, and (c) lack of reproducible methods of nexus assessment. In this paper, we present a novel clustering tool as an expansion to the Climate-Land-Energy-Water-Systems modelling framework used to quantify inter-sectoral linkages between water, energy, and food systems. The clustering tool uses Agglomerative Hierarchical clustering to aggregate spatial data related to the land and water sectors. Using clusters of aggregated data reconciles the need for a spatially resolved representation of the land-use and water sectors with the computational and data requirements to efficiently solve such a model. The aggregated clusters, combined together with energy system components, form an integrated resource planning structure. The modelling framework is underpinned by an open-source energy system modelling tool—OSeMOSYS—and uses publicly available data with global coverage. By doing so, the modelling framework allows for reproducible WEF nexus assessments. The approach is used to explore the inter-sectoral linkages between the energy, land-use, and water sectors of Viet Nam out to 2030. A validation of the clustering approach confirms that underlying trends actual crop yield data are preserved in the resultant clusters. Finally, changes in cultivated area of selected crops are observed and differences in levels of crop migration are identified.

Understanding barriers to collaborative governance for the food-energy-water nexus: The case of Phoenix, Arizona

Food-energy-water (FEW) nexus governance includes the communication and collaboration among multi-level stakeholders across sectoral boundaries of the resources for decision-making. It can increase resource security and decrease unintended consequences, as compared to single-sector governance approaches. Despite these benefits, in practice, many decisions continue to be made separately from one another without cross-sector collaboration. This research integrates the theory of collaborative governance with the concept of the FEW nexus to identify and understand the barriers to this collaboration and to provide recommendations for increased collaborative FEW nexus governance. Focusing on the Phoenix, Arizona metropolitan area, a water-scarce region with a growing population, we conduct a comprehensive case study with social network analysis, participant observation, and interviews. We present the results of our analysis in three sections. First, we identify the key barriers to collaborative FEW nexus governance within four identified themes: structural asymmetries, process asymmetries, communication and coordination, and external influences. Second, we unpack how stakeholders in our study case experience these barriers. Finally, from our case study, we provide recommendations for overcoming barriers and implementing collaborative FEW nexus governance in practice, such as building trust and finding mutual benefit. We conclude that “sector mismatch,” similar to scale mismatch, is the main cause of the identified barriers and that approaches to collaborative FEW nexus governance must address this mismatch for successful engagement.

Opening the black box of water-energy-food nexus system in China: Prospects for sustainable consumption and security

Water-energy-food (WEF) nexus system enables to examine the implications for sustainability. Inevitably, shocks from socioeconomic subsystems would impact the stability and reliability of the WEF nexus system. This paper aims to identify the reasons for changes in water withdrawal, energy consumption, and crop consumption, and uncover differentiated effects from both the national and provincial perspectives, and finally offer the main strategies in China that balance socioeconomic development and resource-saving from the consumption perspective. Empirical results in China from 2011 to 2017 show that (1) the reduction of per capita energy consumption leads to a decrease in water withdrawal, while increased population and water withdrawal intensity in energy sectors have adverse effects on diminishing water withdrawal. (2) The decrease in energy consumption mainly results from improved energy use efficiency for the whole period. (3) Reduction in national crop consumption is mainly caused by the decline in energy consumption per person over the years, which implies a positive effect of food-energy nexus effect on the decrease in crop consumption. (4) Spatially-temporarily contribution rates of drivers offer implications to the implementation of resource-saving and sustainability in the future. Directions and magnitudes of driving forces are different from the sub-nation perspective, hence, finally takes Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region as an example, we analyze clearly the relative planning and reports and propose several pathways to accelerate the sustainable development in the BTH region.

Trade-offs between water needs for food, utilities, and the environment—a nexus quantification at different scales

With a growing population and a changing climate, competition for water resources in the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus is expected to increase. In this study, competing water demands between food production, freshwater ecosystems and utilities (energy, industries and households) are quantified. The potential trade-offs and related impacts are elaborated for different SSP scenarios with the integrated assessment model IMAGE, which includes the global vegetation and hydrology model Lund-Potsdam-Jena managed Land (LPJmL). Results for the 2045–2054 period are evaluated at the global scale and for a selection of 14 hotspot basins and coastal zones. On the global scale, we estimate that an additional 1.7 billion people could potentially face severe water shortage for electricity, industries and households if food production and environmental flows would be prioritized. Zooming in on the hotspots, this translates to up to 70% of the local population. Results furthermore show that up to 33% of river length in the hotspots risks not meeting environmental targets when prioritizing other water demands in the nexus. For local food production, up to 41% might be lost due to competing water demands. The potential trade-offs quantified in this study highlight the competition for resources in the WEF nexus, for which impacts are most notably felt at local scales. This emphasizes the need to simultaneously consider different dimensions of the nexus when developing scenarios that aim to achieve multiple sustainability targets.

Growing Spatial Overlap Between Dam-Related Flooding, Cropland and Domestic Water Points: A Water–Energy–Food Nexus Management Challenge in Malawi and Ghana

In sub-Saharan Africa, land cover change, expansion of hydropower infrastructure, and increased flooding complicate country-level efforts to meet the Sustainable Development Goal target concerning access to safe water. The Water, Energy and Food (WEF) nexus approach recognises that addressing these complex challenges requires cross-sectoral analyses at multiple scales. Building on such an approach, our study examined the interrelationships between land cover change, dam-related flooding and access to safe water via a national-level spatial analysis with local case studies in Malawi and Ghana. Our assessment of the water–food interactions found that areas of overlap between water points and cropland increased from 2000 to 2020 for both countries at national scale, but overlap extent varied greatly depending on the land cover product used. Local-scale exploration of water point installation patterns in Zomba, Malawi confirmed this pattern, highlighting increasing non-governmental funding of borehole installation programmes. Our assessment of water–energy interactions found that flooding mediated by hydropower dams increased for the White Volta Basin in Ghana, thereby increasing inundation of groundwater points. Local-scale focus group discussions revealed flooding resulted in contaminated water sources and high risk of injury or drowning whilst fetching water. Overall, our study highlights how socio-economic drivers are bringing water points, flooding and cropland into closer proximity, requiring flood mitigation measures at water points and agro-chemical management to minimise potential water quality impacts. Given differences between land cover products, we recommend more robust integration of existing land cover products to better monitor these phenomena.

Grand Challenges of Hydrologic Modeling for Food-Energy-Water Nexus Security in High Mountain Asia

Climate-influenced changes in hydrology affect water-food-energy security that may impact up to two billion people downstream of the High Mountain Asia (HMA) region. Changes in water supply affect energy, industry, transportation, and ecosystems (agriculture, fisheries) and as a result, also affect the region's social, environmental, and economic fabrics. Sustaining the highly interconnected food-energy-water nexus (FEWN) will be a fundamental and increasing challenge under a changing climate regime. High variability in topography and distribution of glaciated and snow-covered areas in the HMA region, and scarcity of high resolution (in-situ) data make it difficult to model and project climate change impacts on individual watersheds. We lack basic understanding of the spatial and temporal variations in climate, surface impurities in snow and ice such as black carbon and dust that alter surface albedo, and glacier mass balance and dynamics. These knowledge gaps create challenges in predicting where and when the impact of changes in river flow will be the most significant economically and ecologically. In response to these challenges, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) established the High Mountain Asia Team (HiMAT) in 2016 to conduct research to address knowledge gaps. This paper summarizes some of the advances HiMAT made over the past 5 years, highlights the scientific challenges in improving our understanding of the hydrology of the HMA region, and introduces an integrated assessment framework to assess the impacts of climate changes on the FEWN for the HMA region. The framework, developed under a NASA HMA project, links climate models, hydrology, hydropower, fish biology, and economic analysis. The framework could be applied to develop scientific understanding of spatio-temporal variability in water availability and the resultant downstream impacts on the FEWN to support water resource management under a changing climate regime.

Eco-Efficiency of the food and beverage industry from the perspective of sensitive indicators of the water-energy-food nexus

The water-energy-food (WEF) nexus has motivated several studies, opening space to provide robust support for the decision-making process. Certain studies seek to understand the interdependence of these three resources in a quantitative and/or qualitative manner, usually using total water, energy, and food indicators. However, in times of social, economic, and environmental crisis, national policies must be optimized, and hence it is necessary to evaluate marginal and critical indicators of each resource, i.e., sensitive indicators. Based on these indicators, we propose a methodology for assessing ecological efficiency (eco-efficiency) in industries using a multiregional input-output table, Data Envelopment Analysis, and the Malmquist index, with the main objective of internalizing normally overlooked impacts in the national policymaking process. For this, we present a quantitative assessment of the WEF nexus in the Brazilian food and beverage industry, since it is one of the pillars of the country's economy and has several positive and negative effects related to the WEF nexus, as well as a growth trend to meet rising food demand. From 2015 to 2019, this industry eco-efficiency was evaluated in terms of water stress, fossil energy consumption, and financial compensation to low-skilled workers. The main findings show that the Fish industry has the highest average eco-efficiency, with sustainable gains over the period, while the Meat cattle industry has the lowest average eco-efficiency. As a result, the Fish industry places less strain on these resources to generate the same socioeconomic benefits as others, resulting in less food and water insecurity, and should be prioritized in Brazil's national policies regarding industry expansion. We conclude that this methodology can help integrate WEF resources into national policy decision-making processes, allowing the identification of negative impacts that should be avoided or mitigated, as well as positive impacts that should be encouraged.

Application of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus Approach to the Climate-Resilient Water Safety Plan of Leh Town, India

Climate-resilient water safety plans (CR-WSPs) have been developed as a risk-based approach to ensure a safe drinking-water supply while addressing the increasing stress on water resources resulting from climate change. Current examples of the application of CR-WSPs show a strong sectoral approach that fails to explore the potential synergies between other climate-sensitive sectors related to water, such as food and energy. This can increase the vulnerability or decrease the overall resilience of urban systems when planning climate change adaptation measures. In this work, the Water–Energy–Food (WEF) Nexus approach was applied in the formulation of a CR-WSP in Leh Town, India, a city with rapid development and population growth located in the Himalayas—one of the most sensitive ecosystems to climate change. The WEF Nexus approach was applied in the system description using a critical infrastructure approach and in the formulation of scenarios for risk management which exploited intersectoral synergies through water reclamation with resource recovery using constructed wetlands. The improvements in WEF security and risk reduction were demonstrated through indicators and risk mapping with geographical information systems (GISs). The methods for integrating the WEF Nexus approach in CR-WSPs provided through this work can serve as a base for a trans-sectoral, resilient approach within risk-based approaches for water security.

Development of a prototype composite index for resilience and security of water-energy-food (WEF) systems in industrialised nations

The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus is a dynamic and complex system, in which the resources of water, energy, and food are inextricably linked. The system faces a number of threats including man-made hazards, e.g. overpopulation, urbanisation, ageing population, terrorism and geopolitical upheaval, and natural hazards such as climate change and extreme weather events. General indicators for the WEF nexus provide information on current access and availability of water, energy and food to a population. However, in industrialised nations such as the UK, such information is often masked by the consistently high access and availability of WEF resources. This paper proposes a composite WEF resilience index formed by aggregating two sets of indicators: one representing the availability level of WEF resources in terms of three WEF sectors; and the other representing population access to the resources at the household level. The WEF availability and the household accessibility indicators were calculated separately within the water, energy, food, and household sectors. Within each sector, an Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) was used for weighting sub-indicators based on experts’ evaluation of the relative importance among the sub-indicators. This allowed us to synthesize individual opinions using expertise level in a group decision-making framework. A pilot study was performed on the UK WEF nexus to measure resilience in recent times. This prototype composite index can be used for exploring the resilience of the WEF systems to shocks and changes in the presence of high WEF access and availability. • Development of a composite Water-Energy-Food resilience index for industrialised nations. • Aggregation of the WEF availability indicators and the household accessibility indicators. • Evaluation of the relative importance among the sub-indicators by experts. • Synthetization of individual opinions in a group decision-making framework. • The UK WEF nexus resilience measured in recent times.

Multi-scale simulation and dynamic coordination evaluation of water-energy-food and economy for the Pearl River Delta city cluster in China

In this research, an integrated approach is developed through the incorporation of systems dynamics (SD), catastrophe progression (CP), and coupled coordination degree (CCD) analysis within a general modelling framework. The developed SD-CP-CCD is then employed to simulate and evaluate relationships among the water-energy-food (WEF) and the economic systems. It will improve traditional methods for WEF nexus analysis through a) incorporating urban WEF connections and changes into the cross-system coupling analysis framework, b) evaluating its coordination with economic growth and a multi-scale and regional disparity, and c) promoting policy recommendations to ensure the guarantee of urban WEF under economic growth. The approach is then verified through WEF nexus system of Urban Agglomerations of Pearl River Delta City Cluster (PRDCC) in China. Temporal and spatial characteristics of CCD in the region were analyzed. The results revealed their performance in cities with multiple economic backgrounds. Also, the fragile factors of each city were reflected by multi-scale exploration. Regional inequality and spatial agglomeration effects were considered. The results showed that CCD has noticeable temporal and spatial differences. Geographically, CCD varied from uncoordinated to high-level coordination. The eastern cities were much better coordinated than the western cities. Due to the increasing pressure of population and economic growth in the future, the upward trend of CCD would occur in most cities. The vulnerability factors of each city were explored. Simultaneously, apparent spatial inequality and agglomeration patterns were observed, with a downward trend over time. The temporal and spatial patterns of CCD revealed in this study indicated that PRDCC policymakers should formulate policies that suit the characteristics of cities and reduce the targeted regional imbalances.

Partnerships and Network Governance for Urban Food-Energy-Water (FEW) Nexus

ABSTRACT Few studies have examined the critical role of policy and network governance mechanism in addressing sustainability and FEW nexuses. This study aims to examine the efforts in meeting the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the urban environment. More specifically, the study seeks to examine how growing demands on the food-energy-water (FEW) nexuses can be met through partnerships in dense urban areas as population growth and human migration continue to accelerate in metropolitan areas worldwide. The goal of the article is to address the role of multi-stakeholder partnership in the successful implementation of FEW nexus projects. The study highlights how FEW nexus projects can improve urban sustainability and equity with the aid of stakeholder involvement. The study contributes how FEW nexus projects can improve urban sustainability with stakeholder engagement with varying degrees of partnerships with public, private, and nonprofit sector organizations in both policy and governance.

Effect of the marine system on the pressure of the food–energy–water nexus in the coastal regions of China

Food, energy and water are important resources for national development and human life, the conflicts among three have become more acute especially in coastal regions, but most existing studies focused on land. To investigate the effects of marine resources on relieving the pressure of the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus in the coastal regions of China and its state changes, the concept and computing method of marine equivalent food, energy, and water resources was proposed to quantify the supply of marine resources, meanwhile, this study constructed a pressure index model of food, energy, and water resources from the perspective of average possession of resources. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first FEW nexus study based on a marine resource perspective. The results shown that, during the study period, (1) Fujian had the most marine equivalent food production accounts for 44% of the terrestrial food yield; the marine equivalent energy made Shandong and Hainan to be a major province of energy; and marine equivalent virtual water was equivalent to 6% of the annual water consumption. (2) the food pressure in the south of the Yangtze River was much higher than that in the north; the water pressure was the opposite, and the energy pressure was high in all coastal regions of China. Considering the supply of marine resources, the FEW nexus pressure was alleviated by more than 10% in nearly half of the coastal provinces and cities. Moreover, valuable suggestions were propounded to each area targeted, which provide references and suggestions for alleviating the pressure of the FEW nexus not only in China's coastal region, but also have implications for resource flows in other regions. Also, the findings of this study contribute to a more comprehensive understanding and protection of the ocean, and promote regional sustainable development.

Toward Resilient Water-Energy-Food Systems under Shocks: Understanding the Impact of Migration, Pandemics, and Natural Disasters

The historic pandemic faced by the international community today boldly demonstrates the complexity and interconnectedness of the resource challenges we must better understand and address in the future. Further complexity is observed when accounting for the impact of compounded shocks related to natural disasters and forced migration around the world. Effectively addressing these challenges requires the development of research that cuts across disciplines and innovates at their interfaces, in order to develop multifaceted solutions that respond to the social, economic, technological, and policy dimensions of these challenges. Water, energy, and food systems are tightly interconnected. They are faced with pressures of varying natures and levels of urgency which need to be better understood, especially as nations work toward achieving the UN 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. This paper will review existing models and knowledge gaps related to water-energy-food (WEF) nexus models, as well as models for quantifying the impact of migration, pandemics, and natural disasters on this resource nexus. Specifically, this paper will: (1) explore the WEF nexus literature and identify gaps in current assessment tools and models; (2) explore the literature on tools and models for predicting the shocks of migration, natural disasters, and pandemics; (3) identify interconnections between water, energy, and food systems and the identified shocks; (4) develop a common framework that provides a road map for integrating those shocks in WEF nexus analysis; (5) provide recommendations for future research and policies moving forward.

Achieving sustainable development goals in agricultural energy-water-food nexus system: An integrated inexact multi-objective optimization approach

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) take the global challenges into a new phase, calling for reasonable resources management from holistic perspectives. This study develops a novel integrated modelling framework for sustainable agricultural energy-water-food nexus (EWFN) management, with the objectives of maximum social welfare of water resources allocation, maximum hydroelectric generation, maximum grain crop production, maximum positive farmland ecosystem service value, and minimum negative farmland ecosystem service value. The proposed framework is capable of: (1) balancing benefit efficiency and allocation equity using social welfare function; (2) reconciling conflicting targets among socio-economic, resource, and eco-environmental spheres; (3) generating sustainable water and land resources allocation strategies considering complex and uncertain environment. The proposed model was applied to the Zhanghe Reservoir irrigation area, central China. Flexible water and land resources allocation schemes among different sectors, crops, and periods were generated, as well as managerial insights into what efforts should be done were provided for decision-makers. After optimization, efficiency-equity tradeoff was balanced with social welfare index reaching [0.94, 0.99]. Optima results show that GHGs emission contributed majority of the total loss, which cannot be totally neutralized by carbon sequestration, causing negative eco-environmental impacts of [2.3, 3.4] × 108 CNY. The proposed model performs well on generating robust and coordinated solutions according to scenarios analysis and models comparison. The proposed approach has potential on achieving SDGs in agricultural EWFN system, and is portable to other agriculture-centered areas suffering from similar resources crisis.

Agricultural Land or Photovoltaic Parks? The Water–Energy–Food Nexus and Land Development Perspectives in the Thessaly Plain, Greece

Water, energy, land, and food are vital elements with multiple interactions. In this context, the concept of a water–energy–food (WEF) nexus was manifested as a natural resource management approach, aiming at promoting sustainable development at the international, national, or local level and eliminating the negative effects that result from the use of each of the four resources against the other three. At the same time, the transition to green energy through the application of renewable energy technologies is changing and perplexing the relationships between the constituent elements of the nexus, introducing new conflicts, particularly related to land use for energy production vs. food. Specifically, one of the most widespread “green” technologies is photovoltaic (PV) solar energy, now being the third foremost renewable energy source in terms of global installed capacity. However, the growing development of PV systems results in ever expanding occupation of agricultural lands, which are most advantageous for siting PV parks. Using as study area the Thessaly Plain, the largest agricultural area in Greece, we investigate the relationship between photovoltaic power plant development and food production in an attempt to reveal both their conflicts and their synergies.

A Comprehensive Review on Types, Methods and Different Regions Related to Water–Energy–Food Nexus

Water, food, and energy are three of the most important resources for long-term survival and development. The term “nexus” is used to underline the need of controlling these primary components collectively rather than separately because they are interconnected and linked. With the purpose of better understanding nexus thinking and showcasing nexus analysis approaches and tools, this study explores the current state of the approach to the water–energy–food relationship, which has gotten a lot of attention in recent years. Water–energy, water–food, water–energy–food, water–energy, and climate are the four forms of nexus. This paper examines a variety of methodologies based on their principal objectives and provides a basic overview of a wide range of currently available methods and instruments for analyzing the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. According to this study, the quantity of studies on the water–energy–food nexus has increased significantly, as the scientific community’s ability to analyze water, food, and energy interlinkages at a greater resolution. The integration and optimization of this multi-centric nexus is explored, with focus on four regions—Asia, Europe, America, and Africa—as a case study. The WEF nexus should be used in case studies to help illustrate its intricacies. Furthermore, this study builds a methodology and frameworks to find study linkages between water, energy, food, and other components, for a nexus analysis and discuss the major challenges and its solutions. This study also includes a scientometric analysis that looks at the countries and keyword mapping. Furthermore, the study is being planned, with an emphasis on quantitative analysis of the water–energy–food nexus which is helpful for the water security at local and global scale. This study aids in the coordination of research efforts to solve the difficult issues in nexus research and create sustainable and adaptable water, energy, and food systems.

A flexible input-output price model for assessment of a nexus perspective to energy, water, food security policymaking

Input-Output models and their extensions offer multiple prospects to explore the energy, water, food inter-linkages – Energy, Water, Food nexus (EWF-n). This paper takes India as a case study to examine a nexus-informed approach to policy making for redressing the EWF security (EWF-s) challenges. First, a Leontief demand-driven EWF-extended Input-Output model is developed. The Leontief's production functions (representing endogenous, fixed technical coefficients) of the developed model are then further modified using flexible functions to capture EWF-related technological and policy interventions. The resulting changes in the model (to include divergent input substitution possibilities) allow evaluation of policy scenarios with nexus or non-nexus considerations towards EWF-s. These scenarios assess outcomes across diverse domains (physical, social, economic, environmental) in short, medium, and long-run over the period 2015-2047. The results show that not only does the EWF nexus-oriented scenario produce major co-benefits demonstrated in terms of the most significant long-term improvement in EWF outcomes but that it also achieves considerably superior economic, social, and environmental outcomes. Synergies and trade-offs across various policy scenarios are also discussed. The insights obtained from the application of this approach, especially cross-sectorial (EWF), cross-domain, and temporal can provide promising takeaways for policymakers to adopt a robust and sustainable strategy for tackling the EWF-s challenges.

Assessing Climate Change Trends and Their Relationships with Alpine Vegetation and Surface Water Dynamics in the Everest Region, Nepal

The Himalayas, especially the Everest region, are highly sensitive to climate change. Although there are research works on this region related to cryospheric work, the ecological understandings of the alpine zone and climate impacts are limited. This study aimed to assess the changes in surface water including glacier lake and streamflow and the spatial and temporal changes in alpine vegetation and examine their relationships with climatic factors (temperature and precipitation) during 1995–2019 in the Everest region and the Dudh Koshi river basin. In this study, Landsat time-series data, European Commission’s Joint Research Center (JRC) surface water data, ECMWF Reanalysis 5th Generation (ERA5) reanalysis temperature data, and meteorological station data were used. It was found that the glacial lake area and volume are expanding at the rates of 0.0676 and 0.0198 km3/year, respectively; the average annual streamflow is decreasing at the rate of 2.73 m3/s/year. Similarly, the alpine vegetation greening as indicated by normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is increasing at the rate of 0.00352 units/year. On the other hand, the annual mean temperature shows an increasing trend of 0.0329 °C/year, and the annual precipitation also shows a significant negative monotonic trend. It was also found that annual NDVI is significantly correlated with annual temperature. Likewise, the glacial lake area expansion is strongly correlated with annual minimum temperature and annual precipitation. Overall, we found a significant alteration in the alpine ecosystem of the Everest region that could impact on the water–energy–food nexus of the Dudh Koshi river basin.

A Review of Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure from the Perspective of Food-Energy-Water Nexus

Small scale urban green-blue infrastructure (indicated as GBI hereafter) comprises huge underexploited areas for urban development and planning. This review article aims to highlight the relevance and knowledge gaps regarding GBI from the perspective of the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus, these being key resources for the survival of human communities. In particular, this review was focused on publications on urban ecosystem services (positive effects) and dis-services (negative effects) associated with different GBI typologies. The review proved that GBI can contribute environmentally, socially, and economically to FEW security and urban sustainability. Yet, such positive effects must be considered against ecosystem dis-services tradeoffs, including urban food production, commonly connected with heavy water and energy consumption, specifically under dry climate conditions, and sometimes related to an excessive use of manure, pesticides, or fertilizers. These conditions could pose either a risk to water quality and local insect survival or serve enhanced mosquito breeding because of irrigation. Up to now, the review evidenced that few nexus modeling techniques have been discussed in terms of their benefits, drawbacks, and applications. Guidance is provided on the choice of an adequate modeling approach. Water, energy, and food are intrinsically associated physically. However, depending on their management, their tradeoffs are often increased. There is a need to minimize these tradeoffs and to build up synergies between food, energy, and water using a holistic approach. This is why the FEW nexus approach offers good insights to address the relation between three important individual resource components of sustainability.