Water Conservation Programs Research Articles

Recent advances in precision (target) conservation

Achieving food security and sustainability in the 21st century is expected to become increasingly challenging due to greater soil degradation resulting from climate change, population growth, and depletion of water resources (Delgado et al. 2011). New scientific research is critical for developing innovative soil and water conservation practices and programs that will maintain or even increase agricultural productivity. This special issue about recent advances in landscape-targeting precision conservation presents studies that investigate the impacts of precision conservation management on agricultural systems and the environment.

Effects of grass and shrub cover on the critical unit stream power in overland flow

Improved knowledge of the effects of grass and shrub cover in overland flow can provide valuable information for soil and water conservation programs. Laboratory simulated rainfall studies were conducted to determine effects of grass and shrub on runoff and soil loss and to ascertain the relationship between the rate of soil loss and the unit stream power of runoff for a 20 o slope subjected to rainfall intensities of 45, 87, and 127 mm/h. The results indicated that the average runoff rates ranged from 4.2 to 73.1 mm/h for grass plots and from 9.3 to 58.2 mm/h for shrub plots. Runoff rates from shrub plots were less than those from grass plots for all but the 45 mm/h rainfall intensity regime. Average soil loss rates varied from 5.7 to 120.3 g/min.m 2 for grass plots and from 5.6 to 84.4 g/min.m 2 for shrub plots. Soil loss rates from shrub plots were generally lower than those from grass plots. Runoff and soil loss were strongly influenced by soil surface conditions due to the formation of erosion pits and rills. The rate of soil loss increased linearly with the unit stream power of runoff on both grass and shrub plots. Critical unit stream power values were 0.0127 m/s for grass plots and 0.0169 m/s for shrub plots. Shrub plots showed a greater stability to resist soil detachment and transport by surface flow than grass plots.

Goal based water conservation projections based on historical water use data and trends in Miami-Dade County

Abstract The Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Department (MDWASD) initiated a series of water conservation programs by implementing best management practices (BMPs) to respond the increasing water demand. The BMPs selected by MDWASD include high efficiency showerheads, toilets and clothes washers. The program has made significant impacts on water conservation in South Florida. The impacts are evinced by the water use trends as well as water consumption records of water conservation program participants who have made changes in their water use habits. Projections for water savings specific to different water conservation goals are presented in this study. The water conservation goals were defined as percentage savings per year, estimated water conservation quantities in daily water demand and targeted per capita water use to achieve desired water conservation goals. The appropriate water conservation rate is projected to be 1–2 million gallons per day (MGD) through 2030. With 2 MGD of water savings, the estimated per capita water use (GPCD) can be reduced from approximately 140–122 GPCD. Additional efforts are need reduce the water demand to US EPA's “water sense” conservation levels of 70 GPCD by 2030.

Performance-based incentives for agricultural pollution control: identifying and assessing performance measures in the United States

Current federal and state soil and water conservation programs consist primarily of cost-sharing or compensating farmers for implementing a set of pre-defined best management practices. This approach does not consider specific environmental outcomes or the cost-effectiveness of the program at the farm or watershed level. Performance-based incentives are payments that are attached to a specified environmental performance measure, for example a reduction in nutrient, sediment, pesticide, or bacteria loss from a field, or reduction in loading at the mouth of a watershed. Assessing environmental performance requires the definition of a performance measure, which is used to calculate resulting incentive payments. In this paper, we discuss issues related to the selection of a performance measure, such as the scale at which the performance is measured, modeling versus monitoring, and the ability of the measure to foster farmer learning and adaptive management. Numerous examples of performance measures adopted or considered by watershed stakeholders in several states are presented. Watershed managers, policy makers, and extension agents can consider this information to make informed choices among proposed approaches toward improving water quality in streams affected by agricultural nonpoint source pollution.

Solving Our Fundamental Problem

This article points out that the key to a successful water conservation program is teaching customers what it takes to produce the water that so easily flows from their tap. Educating customers about conservation could result in reduced consumption as well as reduced costs for water utilities and customers. The article provides several suggestions for utilities in educating their customers about wise water use.

Water Right Prices in the Rio Grande: Analysis and Policy Implications

Climate change, water supply limits, growing environmental values of water and worldwide population growth continue to raise the scarcity of water. These challenges have intensified the transfer of water from farms to cities. Water right transfers are an important international institution to stretch water supplies. In North America's Rio Grande Basin water right transfers are an especially important institution for meeting the growth in urban demands. Despite the importance of water right transfers as a social institution, sellers face uncertainty on the asking price, while buyers face similar uncertainty on the offer price. Weak information on water right prices stymies water transfers while limiting the future resilience of water transfers to address climate change and the need to cope with change in water supplies and demands. This paper describes the development of a database on water right prices using observed transactions from 1980 to 2007. An empirical model was developed using the data to identify important factors influencing those prices. Five water right price predictors were found to be significant: total regional urban water use, priority date of the water right, quantity of water rights offered for sale, regional reservoir storage volume, and regional farm income. Depending on the future status of food scarcity and urban water conservation programmes, water right prices in the basin could grow from zero to 27% over 2010–2020.

The Role of Communicative Feedback in Successful Water Conservation Programs

The Sacramento County Water Agency has made available 2 water conservation programs to its customers. The Data Logger Program attaches the Meter Master Model 100 EL data logger to the customer's water meter for 1 week and provides a detailed report of water usage from each fixture. The Water Wise House Call Program provides findings and recommendations to participants after an hour-long house call by a trained water efficiency professional. This article reports on the effectiveness of these programs for a sample of 100 participating households. The results indicate that although both programs are effective, the Data Logger Program results in greater water conservation. The role of more informative communicative feedback to customers as an explanation for this finding is discussed. The findings emphasize the importance of providing information that target behavioral changes and the provision of timely feedback of the effect of the behavioral changes to the success of water conservation efforts.

Value Landscape Engineering: Identifying Costs, Water Use, Labor, and Impacts to Support Landscape Choice1

Rosenberg, David E., Kelly Kopp, Heidi A. Kratsch, Larry Rupp, Paul Johnson, and Roger Kjelgren, 2011. Value Landscape Engineering: Identifying Costs, Water Use, Labor, and Impacts to Support Landscape Choice. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(3):635-649. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00530.x Abstract: We present a spreadsheet model that identifies the costs, water, labor, fertilizer, pesticides, fuel, energy, carbon emissions, and particulates required of and generated by a user-specified residential or commercial landscape over its economic life. This life includes site preparation, materials purchase, installation, annual maintenance and replacing landscape features that wear out or die. Users provide a variety of site-descriptive information and the model queries an extensive database of landscape data to calculate costs, required inputs, and impacts. We verified model results against observations of water, labor, fertilizer, and fuel use over eight years at three landscapes in the Salt Lake City, Utah metropolitan region. We use the model to show tradeoffs in costs and required inputs for a predominately cool-season turfgrass landscape typical for Salt Lake City and other high desert, intermountain western United States cities and potential modifications to that typical landscape. Results highlight strategies water conservation programs can use to encourage property owners to install and adopt water-conserving landscape features and practices. Residential and commercial landscapers, landscape architects, contractors, and property owners can also model current and proposed landscapes and use results to identify a low-cost, low-input landscape that achieves their client’s or their own goals and values.

Monitoramento de bacias hidrográficas para identificar fontes de sedimentos em suspensão

Programas de conservação do solo e da água que utilizam a bacia hidrográfica como unidade de planejamento têm sido amplamente empregados. Um componente importante desses programas se refere à implantação de projetos de monitoramento hidrossedimentométrico e de qualidade de água para avaliar o impacto nos recursos hídricos das práticas introduzidas. Entretanto, em alguns casos, os resultados obtidos pelos projetos de monitoramento têm sido pouco conclusivos, devido a limitações dos procedimentos experimentais adotados. Esta revisão explora metodologias de avaliação que combinam técnicas tradicionais de monitoramento com técnicas de identificação de fontes de sedimentos que contribuem para elucidar os efeitos das práticas conservacionistas na produção de sedimentos em bacias hidrográficas e também a inter-relação dinâmica entre as fontes de sedimentos.

Getting More Water Efficient in Commercial Kitchens

In July 2009, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) announced a notice of intent to develop a WaterSense specification for prerinse spray valves. Before proceeding with a specification, USEPA wanted to ensure that meaningful efficiency and performance criteria could be established for these products, as it does for all products that earn the WaterSense label. This article discusses the USEPA‐sponsored field study that solicits input from utilities with commercial water conservation programs on the issues, if any, that commercial and institutional kitchens have encountered with high‐efficiency prerinse spray valves, as well as determining the importance of user satisfaction to purchasers of these products.

Financial cost–benefit analysis of bench terraces in Rwanda

AbstractBench terracing has received considerable attention from soil and water conservation (SWC) programmes involved in soil erosion control in Rwanda. It is questioned, however, whether enough attention is paid to the suitability of the soils and to the eventual financial profitability. Terraces may reduce soil erosion and increase production but they should also provide sufficient financial gains at farm level. A plot level financial cost–benefit analysis was undertaken to examine under which social and economic conditions bench terraces are financially viable in Northern and Southern Rwanda. Farmers' estimates of respective costs and potato yields from plots with subsidized and un‐subsidized bench terraces, progressive terraces and plots with no terraces at all were obtained for the analysis. Costs of labour and manure were found to be the most influential for the profitability of bench and progressive terraces. While the cost–benefit analysis, using market prices, showed that bench terraces would be hardly profitable, an analysis with opportunity costs for labour and manure indicated that bench terraces and even more progressive terraces can be financially profitable. Extra measures and incentives may be required to facilitate use of labour and access to manure, as now achieved with the one cow per family policy. This paper suggests that further studies should be undertaken to determine costs and benefits of bench terraces beyond private perspective in Rwanda. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Implementing Landscape Water Conservation in Public School Institutional Settings: A Case for Situational Problem Solving1

Kilgren, Douglas C., Joanna Endter‐Wada, Roger K. Kjelgren, and Paul G. Johnson, 2010. Implementing Landscape Water Conservation in Public School Institutional Settings: A Case for Situational Problem Solving. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 46(6):1205–1220. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2010.00486.xAbstract: Urban water conservation programs and research generally focus on residential and commercial use while paying less attention to institutional settings. We studied irrigated landscape water conservation at public schools, controlling for type of irrigation system (manual vs. automated control) and water conservation interventions (control, directive, prescriptive, and educational). We monitored landscape water use to compare changes among interventions and irrigation systems to measured plant water needs and historical use. Interviews and diaries allowed the study of behavior among custodians managing landscape irrigation. Large irrigation system effects overshadowed impact of the interventions. Schools using automated systems had high landscape water use and substantial capacity for water conservation but actual savings varied among schools. Schools using manual systems were the opposite yet many still managed further reductions in response to interventions. Effectiveness of water conservation interventions depended upon the contexts in which they were applied. Interventions were more effective when they led to situational problem solving that integrated generalized scientific and technical knowledge with experiential knowledge. Our findings suggest ways for school districts to decide where, when, and how to intervene in promoting water conservation but caution school districts investing in automated‐irrigation systems, particularly if they will be operated remotely.

From Waste to Superbrand: The Uneasy Relationship between Vegemite and Its Origins

From Waste to Superbrand: The Uneasy Relationship between Vegemite and Its Origins

<b>ESTIMASI NILAI LINGKUNGAN PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT DITINJAU DARI NERACA AIR TANAMAN KELAPA SAWIT (STUDI KASUS: PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT DI KECAMATAN DAYUN, KABUPATEN SIAK, PROPINSI RIAU)</b><br><i>THE ESTIMATION OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... <i>

Dayun area is one of the centers of oil palm plantation in Siak Regency. State-owned company that develops oil palm plantation in Dayun is PT Perkebunan Nusantara V (PTPN V) which is the first company developing oil palm plantation in Siak Regency. The oil palm plantations cause various effects to the environment; one of them is the decreasing water availability for the water stakeholders. The decreasing water availability causes additional cost to the community. The objectives of this study were to determine the decreasing of water availability which was caused by oil palm plantation, and its cost to meet the needs of water. The study used water balance model by Thornwhite 1957 and Willingness to Pays (WTP) analysis using questionaire of Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) in Sawit Permai, Dayun Subdistrict, Siak Regency. The land cover, before and after, affects the water balance which impacts the water availability in Dayun. The decreasing water availability was comparable with the increasing water demand in oil palm plantation, equal to 67 mm/year. Oil palm plantation had greater runoff than that of forest. The need of water in oil palm plantation in Dayun was 42.728 liters/ha/day, with the daily need of a single palm tree equal to 0,012 m3/s. Based on the analysis of debt estimation, there is debt decreasing which indicates the decreasing water availability in Dayun, around 349 m3/s yearly. The estimated value of the environment for oil palm plantation by water resources consumption based on the difference of forest and oil palm plantation during the dry season (JJA) is equal to Rp 7.500.000. Average WTP for the water conservation program is Rp 26.400, with WTP maximum and minimum up to Rp 45.000 and Rp 5.000, respectively. The economic value of water conservation program is Rp 18.850.000/month.Dayun area is one of the centers of oil palm plantation in Siak Regency. State-owned company that develops oil palm plantation in Dayun is PT Perkebunan Nusantara V (PTPN V) which is the first company developing oil palm plantation in Siak Regency. The oil palm plantations cause various effects to the environment; one of them is the decreasing water availability for the water stakeholders. The decreasing water availability causes additional cost to the community. The objectives of this study were to determine the decreasing of water availability which was caused by oil palm plantation, and its cost to meet the needs of water. The study used water balance model by Thornwhite 1957 and Willingness to Pays (WTP) analysis using questionaire of Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) in Sawit Permai, Dayun Subdistrict, Siak Regency. The land cover, before and after, affects the water balance which impacts the water availability in Dayun. The decreasing water availability was comparable with the increasing water demand in oil palm plantation, equal to 67 mm/year. Oil palm plantation had greater runoff than that of forest. The need of water in oil palm plantation in Dayun was 42.728 liters/ha/day, with the daily need of a single palm tree equal to 0,012 m3/s. Based on the analysis of debt estimation, there is debt decreasing which indicates the decreasing water availability in Dayun, around 349 m3/s yearly. The estimated value of the environment for oil palm plantation by water resources consumption based on the difference of forest and oil palm plantation during the dry season (JJA) is equal to Rp 7.500.000. Average WTP for the water conservation program is Rp 26.400, with WTP maximum and minimum up to Rp 45.000 and Rp 5.000, respectively. The economic value of water conservation program is Rp 18.850.000/month.

Catchment‐level evaluation of farmers' estimates of soil erosion and crop yield in the Central Highlands of Kenya

AbstractSoil and water conservation programmes in Kenya were not always successful due to experts' negligence of the role of farmers in problem identification and conservation planning. Using farmers' knowledge of soil surface morphology to assess soil productivity may stimulate farmers to participate in solving the prevailing problems. The objective of this study was to compare farmers' soil erosion and crop yield estimations with a conventional science approach in a small (∼550 ha) catchment in the Central Highlands of Kenya. Farmers' knowledge and perceptions of the effect of topsoil erosion features was used to assess the soil erosion status across the catchment area. The conventional scientific approach used a survey methodology and GIS‐based up‐scaling to quantify soil erosion patterns. In addition, the farmers made qualitative estimations of crop yield losses, which were verified through actual crop yield measurements. The soil erosion pattern between the farmers and conventional science approaches showed a strong agreement at the hillslope scale, while at the catchment scale the agreement was slightly weaker. Farmers observed more area under nearly flat and gentle slopes to have high erosion than the area approximated by the conventional science approach. Farmers' prediction of crop yields loss in each erosion class showed no difference with the actual field measurements. Despite use of farmers' mapping of erosion pattern being participatory, thereby stimulating awareness creation on land degradation processes, it can be labour intensive and a slower approach than the conventional science approach in evaluating catchment‐scale erosion patterns. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Training the Next Generation

This article discusses water utility workforce succession and knowledge retention issues related to the increase in requirements for environmental and water conservation programs. The article discusses the conspicuous lack of formalized training and competency assessment available to currently practicing or potential water conservation professionals. The article highlights water conservation training by AWWA's California‐Nevada (CA‐NV) Section, and the Lane Community College (LCC) Water Conservation Technician Program, and mentions a conservation program offered by AWWA's Pacific Northwest Section Water Conservation Committee (PNWS WCC) that is regionally specific to Oregon, Washington and Idaho. This program was designed to be modular and to allow for the removal of geographically‐specific information and the inclusion of modules from other geographic areas.

New codes are making it easier to be green

The two predominant model code organizations, the International Association of Mechanical and Plumbing Officials (IAPMO) and the International Code Council (ICC), are both developing plumbing and building codes to assist communities in enacting sustainable construction codes that include water and energy conservation requirements. Although these “green codes” might ensure uniformity in water‐efficiency regulations, they may not provide an effective level of water conservation nor be available in time to mitigate the severe water supply shortages in some regions of the United States. This article details how green codes, if properly implemented, could greatly reduce water demand as well as the cost to water agencies of implementing water conservation programs in the future.

The Contradictions in ‘Alternative’ Service Delivery: Governance, Business Models, and Sustainability in Municipal Water Supply

Restructuring municipal water supply using ‘alternative service delivery’ models is a growing trend. The author examines potential contradictions between ‘alternative service delivery’ business models, on the one hand, and goals of good governance and sustainability on the other. A case study of water conservation and efficiency programs implemented by municipal water utilities in Canada is used to show that specific alternative service delivery (ASD) models which seek greater distance between management and government can create incentives which deter utilities from pursuing important social and environmental goals. The neoliberal governance reform that commonly accompanies and encourages ASD tends to exacerbate its deficiencies vis-à-vis conservation in the water sector. Still, the prevalent government-led service delivery model can impose trade-offs of its own. Strategic (rather than ideological) improvements in governance can enable municipalities to reap the benefits of a variety of business models (including ASD) without compromising sustainability objectives.

Proactive Planning Preserves Resources for Future Generations

This article discusses opportunities to develop a water conservation program at Valparaiso (Indiana) City Utilities (VCU) that would have the following goals: promote and provide environmental sustainability leadership; potentially offset or delay capital expansion costs; and, provide customers with a way to increase water use efficiency. The article discusses the creation of a task force to provide input and guidance and serve as a conduit to the community, and presents task force plan objectives, along with the water conservation plan based on U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidelines, and selected measures that where analyzed for cost benefit analyses. The water conservation plan also focused on public education and community outreach to motivate VCU customers to understand the value of conserving water.

A quantitative assessment of human impacts on decrease in sediment flux from major Chinese rivers entering the western Pacific Ocean

Major rivers with high sediment or water discharge act as natural integrators of surficial processes, including human activities within their drainage basins, and they are also the primary sources of terrestrial materials entering the ocean. The river‐derived materials flux entering the coastal oceans, however, has been strongly affected by anthropogenic activities. Recent studies related to human impacts on river sediment flux have mainly focused on qualitative descriptions. Here we present a quantitative assessment of human impacts on decrease in sediment flux from nine major Chinese rivers entering the western Pacific Ocean, including Changjiang (Yangtze), Huanghe (Yellow), Zhujiang (Pearl), Songhuajiang, Liaohe, Haihe, Huaihe, Qiantangjiang, and Minjiang. During 1959–2007, dams and reservoirs, soil and water conservation programs, water consumption, as well as sand mining decreased the amount of sediment delivered to the ocean by 28, 11.5, 7.5 and 3 gigatons (Gt), respectively. If combined (50 Gt for the period 1959–2007), this reduction was close to the total decreased sediment flux (43 Gt) measured from these nine major rivers over the same period. Besides, the temporal variations in water and sediment fluxes into the ocean from these rivers generally during 1953–2007 were presented. These results are useful for further studies on Chinese and even global river‐derived material flux to the ocean and associated ecological risks.