Flush Toilets Research Articles

Assessment of Excess Gamma Dose Exposure Level in Typical Nigeria Commercial Building Materials Distribution Outlets

The gamma dose rate exposure levels from different brands of building materials at commercial distribution stores/shops in two major cities in Ondo State, Nigeria, were measured using a well calibrated Inspector 1000 scintillator detector. The results showed that the different brands of building materials which are Corrugated iron sheet, Aluminum roofing sheets, Conduit pipes, Paints, Cement, PVC pipes, Wash hand basin, Bath tub, Water closet, Kitchen zinc, Asbestos, Floor tiles, Wall tiles, Bullet proof door, Binding wire, rings and rods, Red bricks, Galvanized pipes, Copper pipes, Water tanks contributed excess annual effective doses of 0.332 mSv/y and 0.311mSv/y to store keepers in Ikare Akoko and Akure cities respectively. The indoor and outdoor annual effective dose of each of the investigated two cities are correlated using simple linear regression equations. The results of the modeling and experiment show that annual effective dose received by the occupants of these shops/stores was about 12 % higher than what could be received in a typical natural radiation environment in the two cities because the building materials acts as a source of radiation indoor. The research indicated that the typical habit of using poorly ventilated and confined space as stores/shops by the sales men might subject them to internal exposure through inhalation of radon gas and its short-lived decay products. Implementation of the developed equations would definitely promote rapid determination of outdoor annual effective dose through indoor annual effective dose and ultimately save time and other valuable resources.

Practical Performance and User Experience of Novel DUAL-Flush Vacuum Toilets

Vacuum toilets have gained increasing attention in circular urban development projects, because of their marked water saving qualities compared to conventional flush toilets and the increased resource recovery potential for energy in the form of biogas and phosphorous as, e.g., struvite from the resulting concentrated wastewater. A further reduction of the flushing volume of vacuum toilets would also bring nitrogen recovery options in reach. In the framework of the EU Horizon 2020 project Run4Life, a novel dual-flush vacuum toilet was developed and tested at two sites and combined with an analysis of the flushing patterns and a qualitative user survey. The results show that a 25–50% lower flushing water consumption and accordingly 1.5–2 times higher nutrient concentrations are achievable with this novel type of vacuum toilet. The usage frequency of the dual flush feature was higher in residential homes than in an office building, which also had urinals installed at the men toilets. A notable fraction of toilet visits in which the toilet was flushed twice as well as user feedback on dissatisfactory cleaning effects suggest that the applied reduction in water use is most likely the upper limit of what can be achieved in this type of toilet.

Aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2 due to the chimney effect in two high-rise housing drainage stacks

Stack aerosols are generated within vertical building drainage stacks during the discharge of wastewater containing feces and exhaled mucus from toilets and washbasins. Fifteen stack aerosol-related outbreaks of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in high-rise buildings have been observed in Hong Kong and Guangzhou. Currently, we investigated two such outbreaks of COVID-19 in Hong Kong, identified the probable role of chimney effect-induced airflow in a building drainage system in the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We injected tracer gas (SF6) into the drainage stacks via the water closet of the index case and monitored tracer gas concentrations in the bathrooms and along the facades of infected and non-infected flats and in roof vents. The air temperature, humidity, and pressure in vertical stacks were also monitored. The measured tracer gas distribution agreed with the observed distribution of the infected cases. Phylogenetic analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences demonstrated clonal spread from a point source in cases along the same vertical column. The stack air pressure and temperature distributions suggested that stack aerosols can spread to indoors through pipe leaks which provide direct evidence for the long-range aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through drainage pipes via the chimney effect.

Prevalence And Sociodemographic Characteristics Of Helminthic Infections Among Primary School Pupils In Gombe, North-eastern Nigeria

Background: The public health burden and prevalence of intestinal helminths in Nigeria are increasing, with 45% of school age children being infected annually. Interrogating the burden and associated demographics will aid preventive measures, early diagnosis and prompt treatment. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of intestinal helminthic infections in school children, types and associated sociodemographic characteristics. Methodology: This was a cross sectional study that used multistage sampling technique to obtain a sample of 350 pupils aged 5 to 14 years from 24 primary schools in Gombe LGA of Gombe state from July 2018 to January 2019. Stool samples were examined with Direct and Formol- ether concentration methods. Results: The prevalence of helminthic infection was 23.7%. The proportion of various types of helminths were 26.5%, 24.1%, 21.7%, and 0.6% for A. lumbricoides, Hookworm, H. nana and Trichuris trichuira respectively while multiple infection accounted for 18.1%. Majority (43; 51.8%) of the infections were light infections. Infection in Public schools accounted for 96.4%. There was a significant association between helminthic infection and public school (p<0.001), low Socio-economic class (P= 0.004) and use of insanitary toilets (P = 0.003). Conclusion: Intestinal helminthic infection is a public health problem in primary school children in Gombe, especially in public schools that are attended by students from low social class and whose toilet facilities are in poor states. Regular health education with provision of water closet toilets and de-worming of public primary school children at intervals are recommended to decrease worm burden.

Identifying High Influence Parameters using Genetic Algorithm (GA) Chromosomes for Water Consumption

Severe uncertainties climate changes course flood and droughts disaster have made clean water precious for domestic consumption. Thus, securing clean water is important. Wastage of water comes from water consumption such as from household usage. However, monitoring water consumption from household usage is tedious and time consuming. This work utilized Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize the coefficient of micro-components of water consumption (CMWC) values to determine high influential household routine parameters. Nine household parameters have been investigated namely, bath/shower, personal hygiene, flush toilet, wash cloth by hand, wash cloth by washing machine, food preparation, water plant, washing car and miscellaneous. These parameters are encoded as a chromosome data in GA to incorporate the CMWC values. The aim is to minimize the residential water consumption estimation error rates and subsequently enabling increased accuracy towards estimating and classifying the amount of residential water consumption. Data average monthly water consumption were collected from 80 households in Seremban. Water consumption has been categorized into three groups of low (L-PDWC), medium (M-PDWC) and high (H-PDWC). Comparison was made between per capita water consumption (PCC) and Domestic Water Consumption via Genetic Algorithm (DWC-GA) error rate’s values. The results are as follows; PCC method’s error rates of 9.49 and DWC-GA error rate is 1.05.

AN INVESTIGATION OF GREYWATER ONSITE REUSE POTENTIAL IN AN ARID ENVIRONMENT

Wastewater originating from bathtubs, showers, hand basins, kitchen sinks, dishwashers and laundry machines is usually not as heavily polluted as toilet water and is thus given the name greywater. Greywater separation for onsite reuse has often been voiced as a viable option, particularly for areas suffering from water scarcity. Such areas include remote arid areas, such as desert cities and arid coastal zones. However, issues related to consistency in the quality and quantity of generated greywater were listed as challenges hindering the adoption of greywater reuse. Thus, the objective of this study was to characterize the different greywater sources for variations in the quality and quantity of greywater in households in the city of Al Ain, UAE over a period of 3 months. Samples were collected from 10 Households and tested for the typical water quality parameters (pH, turbidity, COD, and TDS). In addition, a questionnaire was designed to get an estimate of the greywater flow in the different households. Results indicate that the average daily greywater production was around 88 L per person per day. Even though the results of the water quality analysis for light greywater sources (laundry, showers, and hand basins) exhibited high variability, it was still suitable for direct irrigation. The quantification of greywater flow and potential water savings indicated that greywater could be sufficient for onsite reuse in non-crop irrigation in some of the households.

Assessment of Faecal Sludge Management in Nguru Town, Yobe State, Northeastern Nigeria

The aim of the study is to assess faecal sludge management (FSM) in Nguru town, Nguru Local Government area of Yobe State. Random sampling method was used in the selection of respondents in six political wards of the study area. A total of 399 questionnaires were administered to respondents in the study area with the view to identify the types and current practices of faecal sludge management in the study area. The result of the study indicates that majority of the respondents 68% used pit latrine, 24% used water closet while 8% used other type of toilet facilities. However, on the excreta defecation, the finding indicated that 84% had access to household toilets, 8.0% used public toilets, and 6.0% practiced open defecation with the remaining 2% practicing defecation in polythene bags after which they discard it into the bush or on a refuse dump. The study further revealed that majority (54%) of the respondents disposed their toilet sludge by land fill, 31% participants were using any available land for faecal sludge final disposal while 10 % and 5% disposed their toilet by nearby river and composting respectively. The finding indicated that, the faecal sludge management of the study area is unsatisfactory and may pose a risk of environmental and adverse human health. The current practices of faecal sludge management were found below international standard requirement set by WHO. It is therefore recommend that Government should come up with proper orientation and environmental laws should be put in place for the general public and also to provide necessary facilities and arrange for better methods of faecal sludge management.

Appraisal of Rainwater Harvesting in ASCOT Engineering Zabali Campus Baler Aurora

One of the problems encountered by the engineering students and faculty and staff members of Aurora State College of Technology (ASCOT) is the water supply for toilet and urinal flushing. This problem is attributed to the location of the area which is 50m above sea level. The main water source of the campus is the water coming from water falls which requires pipelines that are vulnerable from heavy damage during natural disasters and illegal intrusion. To address the scarcity, rainwater harvesting is considered by the researchers and in this research, the researchers assessed the potential of rainwater harvesting using the roof of an existing building in the area. The result shows that harvesting water from rainfall can become a solution in the scarcity of water in the area. Based on 10-year rainfall data from PAGASA Baler Station Complex which is Located approximately 4.3 km from the location of the study that on average, during December, November and October the amount of rainfall can fulfill the demand of water for toilet and urinal flushing up to 102.54 %, 76.98% and 75.40% respectively. The total area of rainwater collector in this study is about 186.87 square meter. Data also shows that on average, the month of August has the minimum potential of fulfilling the demand water for the area but by increasing the area of collector by 68%, 100% of the demand for this specific purpose maybe met during the driest month of the year

Introduction to the special issue: William M. Dugger’s concepts of social and institutional economics

William M. Dugger’s contributions to social and institutional economics are critically evaluated, reconstructed, summarized, and applied to various problems and issues in this special issue. This short paper introduces the special issue and summarizes the papers included here. It explains how Phillip O’Hara’s paper merges Dugger’s concepts with O’Hara’s principles in order to situate, reconstruct, and summarize the concepts. It summarizes William M. Dugger’s paper, where the concepts of vesting, entrenching, shirking, and faking are applied to the negative impact of competition on the quality of life and socioeconomic performance of modern capitalism. It describes how Ahmet Öncü applies some of Dugger’s concepts to the role of engineers in Turkey through attempts to promote the community’s joint stock of knowledge and the common good. It outlines William Waller’s discussion of Dugger’s concepts of power and hegemony, and the theoretical and methodological contributions Dugger makes to these concepts. It surveys Samuel Rosenberg’s paper, which explains the continuing relevance of Dugger’s concept of the administered labor market. And it sketches Alexander Dunlap’s analysis of Dugger’s four invaluation processes vis-à-vis the medical, ecological, and economic anomalies with flush toilet infra-systems. A conclusion follows.

İdrar yolu enfeksiyonu ile tuvalet tipi arasında ilişki var mı?

Aim: Many metabolic, physiological, and social factors play a role in the formation of infections. The results of the studies investigating the association between toilet type and urinary tract infection (UTI) are contradictory. This study aims to investigate the relationship between UTI and toilet habits and toilet type used. Methods: A cross-sectional study, including 344 participants between the ages of 18-60, was conducted. Sociodemographic information, toilet preferences, toilet habits, diagnosed chronic diseases, and histories of UTI were questioned with a structured questionnaire. Results: Front-to-back wiping, use of urinals in public places, and use of toilet paper were associated with a history of UTI in some genders. No significant relationship was observed between the parameters of general toilet preference, type of toilet preferred at home, and the frequency of water closet use, and UTI history in both genders. Conclusion: The toilet preference and some toileting habits may play a role in UTI. Further studies are required to reveal the real significance of this association.

Faecal sludge containment characteristics and their implications on safe desludging in unplanned settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

In unplanned urban settlements, where onsite sanitation systems are the norm, desludging of faecal sludge (FS) containments is a necessity because of the lack of land space to enable new construction. Poorly designed toilet facilities however may jeopardize the progress towards attainment of safely managed sanitation. This study examined FS characteristics and containment design and their effect on safe desludging with a case of two selected unplanned settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The analysis focused on design features for the strength of the containment, access to the containment, and desludging characteristics of the FS. The Desludgeability potential of FS was determined on basis of flow behaviour explained in terms of moisture content and volatile solids. Research results showed that partially lined pits, lack of containment access holes and solid wastes are design and usage features which negatively affect containment strength and potential for safe desludging. The analysis further found that, only 54.8% of containments studied have FS that can be desludged by either mechanized or hand pumps. Pour flush toilets and septic tanks indicated a slightly higher potential for safe desludging compared to traditional pit latrines, however, the difference is not statistically significant (P = 0.180). Thus, safe desludging is a problem across all types of containments. To enhance safe desludging in Dar es Salaam, three key design features and usage ought to be urgently addressed: first, a requirement to ensure that all pits are fully lined inside, second, the mandatory presence of an access hole for FS desludging and third, limitations on solid waste entering the pits.

Association between sanitary toilet coverage rate and intestinal infectious disease in Jiangsu Province, China

Intestinal infectious disease is one of the most common diseases in China and is prevalent worldwide. The Chinese government launched a toilet improvement campaign to improve sanitation and reduce the incidence of diseases. This study determined the association between sanitary toilet use and intestinal infectious disease incidence in Jiangsu Province, China during 2011–2019. This study adopted an ecological retrospective research design. All secondary data were obtained through government websites and government information disclosure channels. Multiple linear regression was employed to analyze the association between the incidence of intestinal infectious diseases and sanitary toilet coverage rate and other potential predictors. Data suggested that the aggregate annual incidence of Type A and B intestinal infectious diseases showed a downward trend, the aggregate annual incidence of other infectious diarrhea continued to increase, and hand–foot–mouth disease occurred every other year with the highest annual incidence rate. The incidence was higher in coastal cities. Multiple regression results indicated that the usage of three types of sanitary toilets, compliance rate of water quality, and average ambient temperature have an impact on intestinal infectious diseases. The aggregate annual incidence of Type A and B intestinal infectious disease was negatively correlated with the cumulative use of sanitary toilets (β = − 0.036) and surface water quality (β = − 0.135; p < 0.05). Increase in sanitary toilet use and water quality control can reduce the number of new cases, which will be beneficial for the population in the province. Moreover, the toilet improvement interventions should continue to maintain high-quality construction.

Categorising green building features in developing countries: the case of South Africa

Purpose This study aims to explore the concept of green building by determining a suitable system for categorising green building features (GBFs) that are considered significant in enhancing the value of a building in a developing economy with particular reference to South Africa. The motivation for categorising the features is based on the perception that the upsurge in adopting green building and sustainability has ushered in a new and formidable set of challenges to practising professionals in terms of recognising the most significant value-adding GBFs. Design/methodology/approach A quantitative approach was adopted, involving randomly selected construction professionals within the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical analysis tools. Findings Based on the mean ranking analysis, the top three most important features, amongst others, were kitchen and water-closet (WC) water efficient fittings, megawatt photovoltaic solar plant and water metering for monitoring and leak detection. Additionally, an exploratory factor analysis revealed that the underlying grouped features were “recycled materials and high-performance building energy design”, “water-saving and solar technologies”, “biometric system and acoustical feature”, “sensor control and natural daylight design”, “daylight harnessing feature”, “high-performance hydrologic strategy and noise control feature” and “special utility feature and water efficiency technologies”. Research limitations/implications This study was conducted and limited only to the Western Cape Province of South Africa. However, the findings have practical significance to the generality of green building projects and may serve as a useful guide for other developing countries. Originality/value This study broadens the viewpoint of construction professionals to recognise and prioritise the most important GBFs in South Africa that increase the value of a building. To create a system for assessing the sustainability of a building, the seven components and the features associated with them may be useful.

Toilet hygiene—review and research needs

The goal of good toilet hygiene is minimizing the potential for pathogen transmission. Control of odours is also socially important and believed to be a societal measure of cleanliness. Understanding the need for good cleaning and disinfecting is even more important today considering the potential spread of emerging pathogens such as SARS‐CoV‐2 virus. While the flush toilet was a major advancement in achieving these objectives, exposure to pathogens can occur from failure to clean and disinfect areas within a restroom, as well as poor hand hygiene. The build‐up of biofilm within a toilet bowl/urinal including sink can result in the persistence of pathogens and odours. During flushing, pathogens can be ejected from the toilet bowl/urinal/sink and be transmitted by inhalation and contaminated fomites. Use of automatic toilet bowl cleaners can reduce the number of microorganisms ejected during a flush. Salmonella bacteria can colonize the underside of the rim of toilets and persist up to 50 days. Pathogenic enteric bacteria appear in greater numbers in the biofilm found in toilets than in the water. Source tracking of bacteria in homes has demonstrated that during cleaning enteric bacteria are transferred from the toilet to the bathroom sinks and that these same bacteria colonize cleaning tools used in the restroom. Quantitative microbial risk assessment has shown that significant risks exist from both aerosols and fomites in restrooms. Cleaning with soaps and detergents without the use of disinfectants in public restrooms may spread bacteria and viruses throughout the restroom. Odours in restrooms are largely controlled by ventilation and flushing volume in toilet/urinals. However, this results in increased energy and water usage. Contamination of both the air and surfaces in restrooms is well documented. Better quantification of the risks of infection are needed as this will help determine what interventions will minimize these risks.

Correlates of Undeer Five Mortality in SNNPR Regional State, Spatial Data Analysis

The main aim of this study was to identify determinants of under-five child mortality, to describe spatial dependence of child mortality and develop models specifying risk factors used to diagnosis of child mortality among districts in SNNPR State of Ethiopia by using 2016 EDHS collected for 75 weredas/districts by employing spatial models. Spatial lag and spatial error model were fitted to the data, though spatial lag model specification was taken as the best fit for child mortality rate. Accordingly, from global and local spatial analysis it was found that children mortality rate in one district was directly affected by that of its neighbors. The results revealed that water closet, proportion of children under five, toilet availability, and mothers basic education attainment, vaccination coverage, size at birth, mother current working status, ORS information, altitude, stunting score and wasting score of children were significant determinants of children mortality rate. Thus, it is suggested that the geographically targeted preparation on accumulation of treatment that can be useful to control and stabilize spillover (nearest area spread) of disease such as diarrhea, malaria, and fever over space is recommended. It can be suggested for this states’ that the government needs to make intervention to mitigate the spatial variation of the prevalence across regions. Keywords: Child mortality, Spatial data Analysis, GEODA, EDHS, SNNPRS. DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/89-01 Publication date: May 31 st 2021

Toileting Disability Among Older Adults in China and Role of Environmental Factors.

Objectives: We investigated the risk factors associated with toileting disability among older adults in China, focusing on environmental factors (physical, social, and external supports). Methods: Data were drawn from the WHO's SAGE wave 1. We proposed a conceptual framework to guide the selection of risk factors, and implemented logistic regressions separately for urban and rural subpopulations. Results: In both subsamples, older adults who relied on assistive devices were about three times more likely to be toileting-disabled. Rural residents using non-flush toilets were 1.94 more likely to have difficulty toileting than those using flush system toilets. Sharing toilets and did not feel safe in homes were also positively associated with toileting disability. For urban residents, low neighborhood trust was weakly predictive of higher odds of toileting disability. Discussion: This study highlights the importance of environmental factors in explaining toileting disability, and the potential for related policy interventions in developing countries.

Maternal Environmental Factors as Predictors of Occurrence of Gastroenteritis among Under - five Children in Akure South Local Government Area, Ondo State

Aim: To examine maternal environmental factors as predictors of the incidence of gastroenteritis among under-five children in Akure South Local Government Area, Ondo State. Materials and Methods: A descriptive study was carried out in two state-owned hospitals between April and August 2019 using a purposive and convenience sample of 120 mothers of under-five children. Data collected were analyzed using PPMC and regression to test the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level. Results: The study shows that three out of four environmental predictors were potent predictors of the incidence of gastroenteritis. They include: quality of water source (β = .387, t = 7.638, P 0.05) was not a potent predictor. Area of residence, quality of water source, hygienic practices and method of sewage disposal had a significant joint contribution used to predict the incidence of gastroenteritis. Conclusion: Area of residence, quality of water source, hygienic practices and method of sewage disposal all increase the incidence of gastroenteritis when proper attention is not paid to them. Education about handwashing is necessary for mothers and environmental health workers in collaboration with the Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of Environment should ensure that every house has the proper means to dispose of sewage, especially a septic tank (flush toilet); this will help reduce the disposal of feces in the environment.

Limiting potential COVID-19 contagion in squatting public toilets.

Background:Since the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in December 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic continues to threaten global stability. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is mostly by respiratory droplets and direct contact but viral RNA fragments have also been detected in the faecal waste of patients with COVID-19. Cleanliness and effective sanitation of public toilets is a concern, as flushing the toilet is potentially an aerosol generating procedure. When the toilets are of the squatting type and without a cover, there exists a risk of viral contamination through the splashing of toilet water and aerosol generation.Objective:This study aims to determine whether the cleanliness of public toilets was a concern to the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic, and whether a squatting toilet was preferred to a seated design.Methods:A questionnaire was designed and posted on “WeChat” contact groups of the investigators.Results:The survey showed that 91% of participants preferred squatting toilets, but that 72% were apprehensive of personal contamination when using public toilets. Over 63% of the respondents had encountered an incidence of water splash and would prefer public toilets to be covered during flushing and 83% of these respondents preferred a foot-controlled device.Conclusion:This survey suggests that consideration should be given to the installation of a simple foot-controlled device to cover public squatting toilets to help restrict potential COVID-19 contamination and to meet hygienic expectations of the public.

An Exploration of Environmental Practices in the Hospitality Industry. Evidence from Hotels in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Hotels create unforeseen damages to the environment by depleting natural resources and driving out wastes. Studies have rarely been conducted to investigate the nexus between hotels and the environment in Ethiopia. This study aims to explore environmental practices among Addis Ababa hotels. The quantitative research design was applied to the study. The data were gathered through a self-administered questionnaire and analyzed through descriptive statistics. The totels' environmental practice indicators were examined under the themes of water-saving, energy-saving, green purchase, and waste management. Within these themes, the installation of energy-efficient bulbs, installation of a key card for light; using energy-efficient appliances; regular maintenances of water and electric facilities; the installing of dual toilet and other low flow water technologies; placing of dustbins; sorting and disposing of solid wastes, and buying of local products were implemented to a certain extent. The study implicates the requirement of intervention to make hotel operation environmentally sustainable.

Correlation between general health knowledge and sanitation improvements: evidence from rural China

A lack of access to sanitation not only has negative effects on the environment but also results in increased prevalence of disease and adversely affects health outcomes. This paper uses data from a survey in Liaoning Province in China to examine the relationship between general health knowledge and improved sanitation facility access. It also explores the effects of work experience and government subsidies on toilet renovation. Using Logit Regression and Duration Analysis, our results show that general health knowledge had a significant positive correlation with flush toilet use and a significant negative correlation with the average duration of traditional latrine pits use. The results of heterogeneity analysis show that work experience in cities can expand farmers’ horizons, which increases their general health knowledge. However, per capita government subsidies are insufficient and result in no significant impact on general health knowledge. This paper also discusses certain restrictions that prevent general health knowledge from having an effect on toilet renovation. The article finally proposes policy recommendations for rural areas in China to better promote the rural toilet revolution and our results can also provide useful guidelines for drawing up relevant policies in other developing countries.