Conversion Of Waste Cooking Oil Research Articles

Life cycle assessment analysis of an ultrasound-assisted system converting waste cooking oil into biodiesel

This study was aimed at environmentally analyzing an ultrasound-assisted system converting waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel in order to make decisions on its operating conditions. Twenty-seven different experiments (scenarios) carried out at three levels of methanol content, methanolysis temperature, and reaction duration, were compared from environmental viewpoint using the Impact 2002 + life cycle impact assessment approach. The effects of different scenarios on four endpoint impact categories including human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and resource consumption were quantitatively evaluated and comprehensively discussed. The effects of material and energy flows on the endpoint impact categories were also appraised through a sensitivity analysis. Overall, the experimental variables profoundly affected all the endpoint impact categories considered herein. Methanol content exhibited the highest influence on the studied impact categories, while methanolysis temperature showed the lowest impact on these environmental indices. Overall, methanol:oil molar ratio of 6:1, methanolysis temperature of 60 °C, and reaction duration of 10 min could be recommend as the most suitable operating conditions from both technical and environmental perspectives. The environmental impacts of biodiesel produced at the selected conditions were significantly lower than those of the conventional fossil-based diesel fuel. The sensitivity analysis showed that the electrical power utilized in the process was the most influential impact on the human health and climate change damage categories. The phosphoric acid utilized for neutralizing crude glycerol was the most effective input on the ecosystem quality damage category, while the methanol consumed in the process significantly affected the resource consumption damage category. The outcomes of this study revealed that LCA approach could offer relevant environmental impact indices supporting decision-making on the development of sustainable biodiesel production systems and on the identification of their optimal operating conditions.

Influence of Impurities and Oxidation on Hydroconversion of Waste Cooking Oil into Bio‐jet Fuel

AbstractThe influences of impurities and oxidation evolution of waste cooking oil on the preparation of bio‐jet fuel via hydroconversion were studied. The hydrogenation active sites and acid sites were covered by heavy metals, sulfides, and basic nitrogen compounds, resulting in the increase of selectivity for bio‐jet fuel by decreasing the selectivity of diesel, aromatics, and iso‐alkanes. The effects of impurities, oxidation on the reaction pathway, and product distribution became more distinct with higher catalyst acidity. The evolution and variation of naphthalene, indan, and phenanthrene obtained from cyclic fatty acids influenced the properties of fuel or evoked the catalyst deactivation. This work will help to design new catalysts for selective conversion of waste cooking oil into bio‐jet fuel.

Non-catalytic Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil with High Free Fatty Acids Content Using Subcritical Methanol: Process Optimization and Evaluation

Palm cooking oil consumption in Indonesia is very high, and as a result, the used cooking oil which mostly ends up as the waste is also high. Direct discharge of waste cooking oil (WCO) into the environment causes serious environmental pollution problems. WCO contains triglyceride and free fatty acid, which can be converted into biodiesel. In this study, the conversion of WCO into biodiesel was conducted using non-catalytic subcritical methanol process. The effect of the ratio of WCO to methanol (w/v), temperature, and pressure on the recovery of biodiesel was investigated under constant reaction time of 4 h. Based on the Response Surface Methodology (RSM); temperature, pressure, and WCO to methanol ratio (w/v) gave a significant effect on the recovery of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME). From the experimental result, the maximum FAME recovery obtained was 93.29% with the purity up to 97% (200 °C, 5.5 MPa, 3:10), while the predicted recovery calculated by RSM was 91.93% with the optimum condition: 200 °C, 5.5 MPa for WCO to methanol ratio 0.3061 (w/v). The experimental verification showed satisfactory agreement between the observed and predicted values with only 1.36% of error. Therefore, subcritical methanol has good prospects to be applied further in lieu of conventional process to utilize waste oil with high free fatty acid content.

Solar irradiated and metallurgical waste catalyzed conversion of waste cooking oil to biodiesel

This research article is based on the novel conversion of waste cooking oil (WCO) to biodiesel using heterogeneous waste catalysts from Pakistan steel industry, solar energy and conventional heating. The catalysts were analyzed by using the powerful tool of techniques including flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS), powder x-ray diffraction (XRD), IR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The sample of waste cooking oil was subjected to pretreatment through sedimentation, degumming and filtration. The process of transesterification of WCO was carried out with methanol and bioethanol by using industrial waste catalysts under the influence of conventional heating, solar ordinary heating and solar concentrated heating. Sixteen catalysts were tested for biodiesel production, however only five catalysts namely green dust obtained from refractory brick (A), grayish black dust obtained from glass furnace of line breaking material (B), white solid dust obtained from slab of casting floor (C), brown waste produced from broken lining of converter (D) and gray waste dust obtained from converter solid slag (E) were found to be active for the production of biodiesel. The flame atomic absorption (FAAS) and XRD techniques showed the existence of various concentrations of CaO, MgO and ZnO as major oxides along with the traces of some other metal oxides. However, the order of major oxides concentration was found to be as CaO > MgO > ZnO. The basicity test, qualitative determination of metal ions and quantitative determination of calcium was also determined. Bioethanol was produced on large scale from bagasse and used for the transesterification of WCO. Methanol was found to be slightly reactive than bioethanol that was evident from the yield of biodiesel. The solar energy was compared with the conventional heat which is renewable, green and costless. Biodiesel was analyzed by ASTM standards including acid value, saponification value, iodine value, cloud point, pour point, flash point and density which were found to be in agreement with the standard ASTM values. Development of biodiesel technology can play a vital role to mitigate global warming, energy crisis, environmental pollution etc.

Novel Functionality of Lithium-Impregnated Titania as Nanocatalyst

The present work incorporates the synthesis of a multifunctional catalyst for the transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) to biodiesel and recovery of rare earth elements (REEs). For this purpose, TiO2 nanoparticles and TiO2 doped with lithium ions were prepared. The influence of lithium ions on the catalytic performance of TiO2 was attained by impregnation of the different molar ratios of lithium hydroxide to bare TiO2. Then each catalyst was screened for catalytic conversion of WCO to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and also for REEs recovery. All synthesized materials were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis, and Hammett indicator for the basicity test. The obtained biodiesel was characterized by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), 1H, and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Moreover, the physical parameters of the synthesized biodiesel were also determined. The REEs recovery efficiency of synthesized nanomaterials was investigated, and the percentage of REEs removal was determined by inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).

Assessing the sustainability of urban eco-systems through Emergy-based circular economy indicators

Abstract Circular Economy (CE) concepts and tools are getting increasing attention with regard to their implementation in agricultural, urban and industrial sectors towards innovative business models to optimize resource use, process performances and development policies. However, conventional biophysical and economic indicators hardly fit CE characteristics. Life cycle assessment, footprint and economic cost-benefit indicators, do not fully capture the specificity of a closed loop CE framework, characterized by feedbacks and resource use minimization and quality assessment. Commonly used mono-dimensional indicators seem unable to successfully relate the process performance and the use of ecosystem services and natural capital, in that they do not assess the environmental quality and sustainability (renewability, fit to use, recycle potential) of resources and the complexity of interaction between agro/industrial/urban environments and socioeconomic systems, and translate into an incomplete and inadequate picture, far from an effective CE perspective. In this study, Emergy Accounting method (EMA) is used to design an improved approach to CE systemic aspects, focusing on the importance of new indicators capable of capturing both resource generation (upstream), product (downstream) and systems dimensions. This conceptual scheme is built around the case study of the City of Napoli’s economy (Campania region, Southern Italy) considering the surrounding agro-industrial area with its smaller urban settlements. In order to design a reasonable and reliable CE framework, a number of already existing and innovative processes is analyzed and discussed, through a bottom-up procedure capable to account for CE development options based on the recovery of locally available and still usable resources (i.e., conversion of waste cooking oil into biodiesel, conversion of slaughterhouse residues to power and chemicals, recovery and conversion of agro-waste residues, amongst others). The result highlighted that EMA was capable to keep track of the improvement generated by the implemented circularity patterns in terms of reduced total emergy of the system. Moreover, EMA indicators suggested that, in any case, the CE business framework should be intended as a transitional strategy towards more feasible paradigms.

Engineering the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica to produce limonene from waste cooking oil

BackgroundLimonene is an important biologically active natural product widely used in the food, cosmetic, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries. However, the low abundance of limonene in plants renders their isolation from plant sources non-economically viable. Therefore, engineering microbes into microbial factories for producing limonene is fast becoming an attractive alternative approach that can overcome the aforementioned bottleneck to meet the needs of industries and make limonene production more sustainable and environmentally friendly.ResultsIn this proof-of-principle study, the oleaginous yeast Yarrowia lipolytica was successfully engineered to produce both d-limonene and l-limonene by introducing the heterologous d-limonene synthase from Citrus limon and l-limonene synthase from Mentha spicata, respectively. However, only 0.124 mg/L d-limonene and 0.126 mg/L l-limonene were produced. To improve the limonene production by the engineered yeast Y. lipolytica strain, ten genes involved in the mevalonate-dependent isoprenoid pathway were overexpressed individually to investigate their effects on limonene titer. Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) was found to be the key rate-limiting enzyme in the mevalonate (MVA) pathway for the improving limonene synthesis in Y. lipolytica. Through the overexpression of HMGR gene, the titers of d-limonene and l-limonene were increased to 0.256 mg/L and 0.316 mg/L, respectively. Subsequently, the fermentation conditions were optimized to maximize limonene production by the engineered Y. lipolytica strains from glucose, and the final titers of d-limonene and l-limonene were improved to 2.369 mg/L and 2.471 mg/L, respectively. Furthermore, fed-batch fermentation of the engineered strains Po1g KdHR and Po1g KlHR was used to enhance limonene production in shake flasks and the titers achieved for d-limonene and l-limonene were 11.705 mg/L (0.443 mg/g) and 11.088 mg/L (0.385 mg/g), respectively. Finally, the potential of using waste cooking oil as a carbon source for limonene biosynthesis from the engineered Y. lipolytica strains was investigated. We showed that d-limonene and l-limonene were successfully produced at the respective titers of 2.514 mg/L and 2.723 mg/L under the optimal cultivation condition, where 70% of waste cooking oil was added as the carbon source, representing a 20-fold increase in limonene titer compared to that before strain and fermentation optimization.ConclusionsThis study represents the first report on the development of a new and efficient process to convert waste cooking oil into d-limonene and l-limonene by exploiting metabolically engineered Y. lipolytica strains for fermentation. The results obtained in this study lay the foundation for more future applications of Y. lipolytica in converting waste cooking oil into various industrially valuable products.

Conversion of waste cooking oil into medium chain polyhydroxyalkanoates in a high cell density fermentation

Biodegradable and biocompatible polymers polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have a wide range of applications from packaging to medical. For the production of PHA at scale it is necessary to develop a high productivity bioprocess based on the use of a cheap substrate. The objective of the current study was to develop a high cell density bioreactor-based process for the production of medium chain length polyhydroxyalkanoate (mclPHA) with waste cooking oil as the sole carbon and energy source. A number of substrate feeding strategies for bacterial growth and polymer production were investigated. Pseudomonas chlororaphis 555 achieved high biomass of 73 g/l medium and a good biomass yield (including PHA in the cell) of 0.52 g/g substrate. P. chlororaphis 555 accumulated 13.9 g mclPHA/L and achieved polymer productivity of 0.29 g mclPHA/(L h). The mclPHA contained predominantly (R)-3-hydroxyoctanoic acid and (R)-3-hydroxydecanoic acid monomers, with a high fraction of (R)-3-hydroxydodecanoic acid monomers. This polymer is of low molecular weight (18 324 kDa), low polydispersity, it is amorphous, and has a glass transition temperature of −64 °C.

Efficient emulsifying properties of monoglycerides synthesized via simple and green route

Waste cooking oil is produced in enormous quantities every year, and may have negative effect on people’s health and environment in case of improper treatment. However, it is also a potential feedstock for production of bio-based materials. In this work, a low-temperature glycerolysis process had been established to convert waste cooking oil to monoglycerides which was found to be of excellent surface activity with surface tension of 29 mN/m at cmc of 3.5 10−4 mol/L. Meanwhile, monoglycerides could form stable O/W emulsion even under saturated brine conditions, implying its great potential in high salinity environment. Compared to the traditional method for monoglyceride production under high temperature and atmosphere of nitrogen, our method is easy-handling and low energy-consuming.

Directed evolution of a genetically encoded immobilized lipase for the efficient production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil

BackgroundWe have recently developed a one-step, genetically encoded immobilization approach based on fusion of a target enzyme to the self-crystallizing protein Cry3Aa, followed by direct production and isolation of the fusion crystals from Bacillus thuringiensis. Using this approach, Bacillus subtilis lipase A was genetically fused to Cry3Aa to produce a Cry3Aa–lipA catalyst capable of the facile conversion of coconut oil into biodiesel over 10 reaction cycles. Here, we investigate the fusion of another lipase to Cry3Aa with the goal of producing a catalyst suitable for the conversion of waste cooking oil into biodiesel.ResultsGenetic fusion of the Proteus mirabilis lipase (PML) to Cry3Aa allowed for the production of immobilized lipase crystals (Cry3Aa–PML) directly in bacterial cells. The fusion resulted in the loss of PML activity, however, and so taking advantage of its genetically encoded immobilization, directed evolution was performed on Cry3Aa–PML directly in its immobilized state in vivo. This novel strategy allowed for the selection of an immobilized PML mutant with 4.3-fold higher catalytic efficiency and improved stability. The resulting improved Cry3Aa–PML catalyst could be used to catalyze the conversion of waste cooking oil into biodiesel for at least 15 cycles with minimal loss in conversion efficiency.ConclusionsThe genetically encoded nature of our Cry3Aa-fusion immobilization platform makes it possible to perform both directed evolution and screening of immobilized enzymes directly in vivo. This work is the first example of the use of directed evolution to optimize an enzyme in its immobilized state allowing for identification of a mutant that would unlikely have been identified from screening of its soluble form. We demonstrate that the resulting Cry3Aa–PML catalyst is suitable for the recyclable conversion of waste cooking oil into biodiesel.

The Effect of H-USY Catalyst in Catalytic Cracking of Waste Cooking Oil to Produce Biofuel

The crisis in petroleum is caused by the diminishing supply of petroleum resources from nature. This phenomenon encourages researchers to continue to look for processes and methods to produce energy from other resources. One of these ways is to produce energy that can be utilized from waste, including converting waste cooking oil into biofuel. This method not only could provide a source of renewable energy, but also help resolve the issue of household waste. The process used to produce biofuel from waste cooking oil is by catalytic cracking, where waste cooking oil after pretreatment is converted into biofuel in the flow reactor with H-USY catalyst. In this research, the reaction temperatures used are 400 °C, 450 °C, 500 °C and 550 °C and reaction times are 30, 45 and 60 minutes with the mass ratio of the amount of waste cooking oil to the amount of catalyst used is 40:1 (w/w). The highest yield of liquid biofuel product was obtained at 60.98%. The use of H-USY catalyst shows that the distribution of components contained in biofuel are 28.02% of diesel products (C 17 -C 20 ), 23.96% of gasoline (C 6 –C 12 ) and 7.78% of Heavy oil (C 20 >) in catalytic cracking of waste cooking oil with a reaction time of 45 minutes at a temperature of 450 °C.

Optimization of process variables on two-step microwave-assisted transesterification of waste cooking oil

Scale-up and commercialization of biodiesel is often delimited by costly feedstock that adds up to the process costs. These underlying issues demand the exploration of unconventional cheap feed to improve the process economics. Conversion of waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel could reduce the process costs by 60-70%. However, the continuous exposure to heat during frying leads to oxidation as well increase in the free fatty acid (FFA) content which intensifies the time and energy required for transesterification. The present study analyzes the effect of parameters over the conversion of WCO (with 8.17% FFA) into biodiesel via two-step acid-alkali-based microwave-assisted transesterification. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the oil:methanol volume ratio, microwave power, and reaction time during the acid-catalyzed esterification to bring down the FFA below 1%. Microwave irradiation of 250W, with methanol:oil molar ratio of 19.57:1 [oil:methanol volume ratio of 1.31 (expressed as decimal)] and reaction time of 35s, resulted in 0.082% of FFA. Alkali-catalyzed transesterification with methanol:oil molar ratio of 5:1 with 2% sodium hydroxide at 65°C thereby produced fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) with the volumetric biodiesel yield of 94.6% in 30min. Physiochemical properties of the transesterified WCO were well comparable with the biodiesel standards. The study highlights the essentiality of multivariate optimization for the esterification process that could aid in understanding the interactive effects of variables over FFA content. Such studies would benefit in scaling up of the transesterification process at industrial level by improving the economics of the overall bioprocess.

Effect of Water Content in Waste Cooking Oil on Biodiesel Production via Ester-transesterification in a Single Reactive Distillation

A single-column reactive distillation is employed to convert waste cooking oil to biodiesel via simultaneous esterification and transesterification reactions. The waste cooking oil contained 10 wt% of free fatty acid (FFA) and the contaminated water (2-8 wt%) was used as feedstocks for biodiesel production. Esterification was occurred in the upper of column to reduce FFA content to less than 1 wt% and to prevent the simultaneous saponification by base catalyst. Moreover, the contaminated water and by-product water (from esterification) together was removed in-situ as the distillate product. The reactive distillation has been optimally designed to have 16 stages consisting of 5 esterification, 9 transesterification stages and each stage for reboiler and condenser. The feed locations of oil and methanol were at the top of the column and at stage 6, respectively. The optimum methanol to oil ratio was 6:1 with reflux ratio 0.1 while the reboiler duty was in the range of 100-150 kW depended on the water content. This condition successfully converts 97 wt% of waste cooking oil to biodiesel with 96.5% purity.

Metal hydrated-salts as efficient and reusable catalysts for pre-treating waste cooking oils and animal fats for an effective production of biodiesel

A very efficient chemical pre-treatment method that uses cheap and safe hydrated-salts as catalysts for the conversion of waste cooking oils and animal fats having a high Free Fatty Acids (FFAs) content into an oily feedstock convertible into biodiesel through a conventional route (basic catalysis) was investigated. These hydrated-salts allow FFAs to be efficiently (>99%) esterified with alcohols under very mild conditions (343 K, 2 h). At the end of this treatment, a very convenient separation of products was verified. Two different phases were eventually obtained: an upper alcoholic phase, which contains most of the unreacted alcohol, water obtained by direct-esterification (>95%), and the salt that was used as catalyst (recovery >99%); and a lower oily-phase mainly composed of glycerides, methyl-esters derived from direct-esterification of FFAs (residual acidity of about 0.8 mg KOH/g), and part of unreacted alcohol (7–10%wt). Such a separation was convenient because the oily-phase could be directly trans-esterified through conventional base-catalysis, without any further pre-treatments, thus avoiding production of salty-waste. Also, the alcoholic phase could be recovered and directly re-used for new pre-treatments cycles of fresh waste-oils. A final scheme of the proposed process was discussed and the relevant advantages with respect to conventional routes were highlighted.

High Cell Density Conversion of Hydrolysed Waste Cooking Oil Fatty Acids Into Medium Chain Length Polyhydroxyalkanoate Using Pseudomonas putida KT2440

Waste cooking oil (WCO) is a major pollutant, primarily managed through incineration. The high cell density bioprocess developed here allows for better use of this valuable resource since it allows the conversion of WCO into biodegradable polymer polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). WCO was chemically hydrolysed to give rise to a mixture of fatty acids identical to the fatty acid composition of waste cooking oil. A feed strategy was developed to delay the stationary phase, and therefore achieve higher final biomass and biopolymer (PHA) productivity. In fed batch (pulse feeding) experiments Pseudomonas putida KT2440 achieved a PHA titre of 58 g/l (36.4% of CDW as PHA), a PHA volumetric productivity of 1.93 g/l/h, a cell density of 159.4 g/l, and a biomass yield of 0.76 g/g with hydrolysed waste cooking oil fatty acids (HWCOFA) as the sole substrate. This is up to 33-fold higher PHA productivity compared to previous reports using saponified palm oil. The polymer (PHA) was sticky and amorphous, most likely due to the long chain monomers acting as internal plasticisers. High cell density cultivation is essential for the majority of industrial processes, and this bioprocess represents an excellent basis for the industrial conversion of WCO into PHA.

Pilot-scale production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil using kettle limescale as a heterogeneous catalyst

This study aimed to evaluate and optimize a pilot-scale microreactor to convert waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel using kettle limescale. Box-Behnken design was used to determine the optimum conditions for producing biodiesel. Effects of main variables including reaction temperature, catalyst concentration, and alcohol/oil volume ratio were evaluated at a constant residence time of 10 min. Based on the results of analysis of variance, the quadratic regression model had the best coefficient of determination (R2=0.9930) and adjusted coefficient of determination (RAdj.2= 0.9804). After the optimization of temperature, catalyst concentration, and methanol/oil volume ratio, the residence time was optimized to achieve the maximum purity of the produced biodiesel. At a reaction temperature of 61.7 °C, catalysts concentration (oil based) of 8.87 wt %, methanol to oil volume ratio of 1.7:3, and a residence time of 15 min, we observed the optimal conditions for obtaining a maximum biodiesel purity of 93.41%.

Kinetics and Optimization of Catalytic Transfer Hydrogenation of WCO Using 2-Propanol as a Hydrogen Donor over NiOx–MoOx–CoOx/Zeolite

Process optimization and reaction kinetics of catalytic transfer hydrogenation (CTH) of waste cooking oil (WCO) into jet fuels using zeolite-supported Ni–Co–Mo oxides catalyst in a packed-bed reactor were studied. Experiments were conducted at three different temperatures (360, 390, and 420 °C) to determine the rate constants, the order of reaction, and the activation energy. The kinetics study showed a first-order reaction with the activation energy estimated to be 84 ± 18.7 kJ/mol WCO with 95% confidence. Design of experiment (DOE) was employed to estimate the optimum reaction parameters using the polynomial model (383.7 °C; 14.8 bar; WCO-to-2-propanol ratio = 1.57 mL/mL; weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) = 6.7 h–1). Validation of the model at the optimum operating conditions generated 80% yield of liquid products with 77% alkanes, 3.8% alkenes, and 12.3% aromatics composition, and 6.7% gases, and 100% conversion of WCO. The catalyst was prepared via the wet impregnation method and characterized by X-...

Synthesis and catalytic evaluation of hematite (α-Fe2O3) magnetic nanoparticles from iron sand for waste cooking oil conversion to produce biodiesel through esterification-transesterification method

Indonesia’s catalyst needs to reach 2000 tons/year with active period of 1 up to 2 years. The catalyst requirement is largely filled with import catalysts. Iron sand has a potential to be used as a catalyst mainly because of the hematite magnetic mineral content (α-Fe2O3). α-Fe2O3 can be synthesized from iron sand using coprecipitation and calcination method. Performance of these synthesized catalyst evaluated through the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil by esterification-transesterification method. The catalyst preparation by chemical coprecipitation method followed with calcination. Catalyst was characterized by using XRD, SEM-EDX, BET, and PSA and tested for biodiesel production. α-Fe2O3 phase was obtained at calcination temperature 650°C, 700°C, 750°C and 800°C. The best character is given at temperature 700°C. Biodiesel obtained meets SNI (Standar Nasional Indonesia) based on density, viscosity, and acid number. Yield of biodiesel obtained by using α-Fe2O3 calcined at 700°C reaches 86.781% while Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) content obtained reaches 87.880%.

Study on effectiveness of activated calcium oxide in pilot plant biodiesel production

One of the main problems in large-scale biodiesel production is selection of suitable and economically viable heterogenous catalyst. This research work focuses on preparation of calcium oxide (CaO) as a catalyst for the effective conversion of waste cooking oil (WCO) to biodiesel in pilot plant. When the calcinated CaO was treated with methanol, the modified catalyst exhibits increased surface area, increased specific basicity and decreased crystalline size compared to unmodified catalyst, it was confirmed by Fourier Transform Inferred Spectrometry (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis. High biodiesel yield of 92% with Calcinated CaO (C-CaO) and 96% with Activated CaO (A-CaO) was achieved under 80 °C with 3% catalyst (wt) and oil to methanol molar ratio of 1:06 at 400 rpm in 120 min. These optimized conditions were employed in 15 L pilot plant for biodiesel production. FTIR, Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and Thermogravimetry (TGA) studies were used to confirm the formation of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) from WCO. Further, the physiochemical properties of produced biodiesel were analyzed and compared with (American Society for Testing and Materials) ASTM standards. Blending of biodiesel produced from waste material with petro-diesel considerably reduce the fuel cost, emissions also provide sustainable solution for management of fat-oil rich waste material.

Effect of transesterification on the result of waste cooking oil conversion to biodiesel

Biodiesel is one of the greenest alternative fuels and can be produced from vegetable, waste cooking, and animal oils. Waste cooking oil is one of the raw materials that have a high chance of making biodiesel because it contains a very abundant tryglicerides. It is reacted with alcohol and NaOH catalyst through a transesterification reaction. Transesterification takes place inside a three-neck flask that has been equipped with condenser reflux, magnetic stirrer, and a thermometer. To know the effect by using variations of 60 minutes, 90 minutes, 120 minutes, and 150 minutes In this study, the optimum biodiesel conversion of WCO catfish seller was 85.2% preselected at a 1: 6 molar ratio, with 1% NaOH catalyst in 60 minutes. Meanwhile, conversion biodiesel from WCO of household used and WCO of fried sellers were respectively 82.34% and 82.20%. Based on the test of biodiesel properties resulting from the density, viscosity, acid number, water content, flash point and PH that biodiesel have been compliant with SNI. Biodiesel density of 880 kg/m3, acid number 0.27 mg-KOH/g, and has a maximum water content of 0.05. This biodiesel has the main compound the name is palmitic acid which 45.73%.