Waste Animal Fats Research Articles

New insights into meat by-product utilization

Meat industry generates large volumes of by-products like blood, bones, meat trimmings, skin, fatty tissues, horns, hoofs, feet, skull and viscera among others that are costly to be treated and disposed ecologically. These costs can be balanced through innovation to generate added value products that increase its profitability. Rendering results in feed ingredients for livestock, poultry and aquaculture as well as for pet foods. Energy valorization can be obtained through the thermochemical processing of meat and bone meal or the use of waste animal fats for the production of biodiesel. More recently, new applications have been reported like the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates as alternative to plastics produced from petroleum. Other interesting valorization strategies are based on the hydrolysis of by-products to obtain added value products like bioactive peptides with relevant physiological effects as antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, etc. with promising applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry. This paper reports and discusses the latest developments and trends in the use and valorisation of meat industry by-products.

Production and Growth Prospects of Second-Generation Biodiesel Using Waste Animal Fat

Production and Growth Prospects of Second-Generation Biodiesel Using Waste Animal Fat

Application of Response Surface Methodology for Optimization of Biodiesel Production by Transesterification of Animal Fat with Methanol

In this paper, the transesterification of waste animal fat with methanol is studied. The transesterification reaction is affected by parameters like catalyst concentration, reaction time, and reaction temperature and methanol quantity. In this work, optimization techniques such as central composite design and response surface methods have used to find best combination of transesterification parameters to obtain maximum biodiesel yield. The combined effect of catalyst concentration, reaction time and methanol quantity on biodiesel yield were investigated and optimized by using response surface method. XLSTAT software has used to generate a second order model to predict biodiesel yield as a function of catalyst concentration, reaction time and methanol quantity by keeping reaction temperature (55 0 C to 60 0 C) for all experiments. 3D surface plots have been developed to predict maximum biodiesel yield. A statistical model predicted the maximum waste animal fat methyl ester yield of 85.93% volume of oil at optimized parameters of methanol quantity (35% volume of oil), base catalyst concentration (0.46% weight of oil) and reaction time (90 minutes). Experimentally, maximum yield of 91% was obtained at above parameters. A variation of 5.56% was observed between predicted maximum and experimental maximum yield. This is there within the acceptable variation between theoretical and experimental value.

Transesterification and Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil: Effect of Operation Variables on Fuel Properties

Biodiesel is proved to be the best replacement for diesel because of its unique properties like low toxicity, no sulfur emissions, no particulate matter pollutants, significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and biodegradability. Several processes for biodiesel fuel production have been developed, among which transesterification using alkali catalysis gives high levels of conversion of triglycerides to their corresponding methyl esters in short reaction times. It is prepared from waste vegetable oils and animal fats by trans-esterification process. It is alkali catalyzed reaction which involves waste cooking oil, methanol, and potassium hydroxide. The study focus on the physical and chemical properties of waste cooking oil (WCO), transesterification and production of biodiesel from WCO. The operation variables used were methanol/oil molar ratio (5:1-9:1), catalyst concentration (0.5-2.0 wt%), temperature (30-70°C). The evolution of the process was followed by gas chromatography, determining the concentration of the methyl esters at different reaction times. The biodiesel was characterized by its density, viscosity, high heating value, cetane index, cloud and pour points, characteristics of distillation, flash and combustion points, saponification value, and iodine value according to ISO norms. The biodiesel with the best properties was obtained using a methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1, potassium hydroxide as catalyst (1%), and 60°C temperature. This biodiesel had properties very similar to those of no. 2 diesel.

Pilot-scale production of biodiesel from waste fats and oils using tetramethylammonium hydroxide

Annually, a great amount of waste fats and oils not suitable for human consumption or which cannot be further treated are produced around the world. A potential way of utilizing this low-cost feedstock is its conversion into biodiesel. The majority of biodiesel production processes today are based on the utilization of inorganic alkali catalysts. However, it has been proved that an organic base – tetramethylammonium hydroxide – can be used as a very efficient transesterification catalyst. Furthermore, it can be employed for the esterification of free fatty acids – reducing even high free fatty acid contents to the required level in just one step. The work presented herein, is focused on biodiesel production from waste frying oils and animal fats using tetramethylammonium hydroxide at the pilot-plant level. The results showed that the process performance in the pilot unit – using methanol and TMAH as a catalyst, is comparable to the laboratory procedure, even when the biodiesel is produced from waste vegetable oils or animal fats with high free fatty acid content. The reaction conditions were set at: 1.5% w/w of TMAH, reaction temperature 65°C, the feedstock to methanol molar ratio to 1:6, and the reaction time to 120min. The conversion of triglycerides to FAME was approximately 98%. The cloud point of the biodiesel obtained from waste animal fat was also determined.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates production with Ralstonia eutropha from low quality waste animal fats

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters considered as alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Ralstonia eutropha is a model organism for PHA production. Utilizing industrially rendered waste animal fats as inexpensive carbon feedstocks for PHA production is demonstrated here. An emulsification strategy, without any mechanical or chemical pre-treatment, was developed to increase the bioavailability of solid, poorly-consumable fats. Wild type R. eutropha strain H16 produced 79–82% (w/w) polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) per cell dry weight (CDW) when cultivated on various fats. A productivity of 0.3g PHB/(L×h) with a total PHB production of 24g/L was achieved using tallow as carbon source. Using a recombinant strain of R. eutropha that produces poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyhexanoate) [P(HB-co-HHx)], 49–72% (w/w) of PHA per CDW with a HHx content of 16–27mol% were produced in shaking flask experiments. The recombinant strain was grown on waste animal fat of the lowest quality available at lab fermenter scale, resulting in 45g/L CDW with 60% (w/w) PHA per CDW and a productivity of 0.4g PHA/(L×h). The final HHx content of the polymer was 19mol%. The use of low quality waste animal fats as an inexpensive carbon feedstock exhibits a high potential to accelerate the commercialization of PHAs.

Extraction of Waste Animal Fat Oil via High Temperature and Frying Methods

축산 폐유지로부터 원료유의 추출 수율을 높이고, 동시에 수분을 제거하면서 원료유로부터 육분잔사를 용이하게 분리하고자 파일럿 규모(300L)에서 고온 용융추출과 볶음추출 및 동시 수분회수 방법을 수행한 결과 다음과 같다.BR (1) 고온 용융추출(100～140℃, 0.10Mpa, 2～3hr)과 볶음추출(70～100℃, -0.09MPa, 60 min) 및 동시 수분회수 결과, 추출탱크의 온도가 110～140℃에서 기름추출 수율이 65% 이상으로 높게 나타났고, 육분 잔사의 발생량은 추출탱크의 온도가 높아질수록 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 원료유의 추출 및 육분잔사를 활용하기 위하여 열처리단계에서 공급되는 에너지 소비를 고려할 경우 열처리 온도 120℃가 적합한 것을 확인 하였다.BR (2) 고온 용융추출 후 볶음추출 단계를 연속적으로 수행한 결과 육분잔사가 슬러리 형태에서 알갱이 형태로 변하여 기름분리가 매우 수월하였다.BR (3) 추출 탱크의 온도 변화는 기름 추출 수율과 통계적으로 유의적인 차이를 보이지는 못했으나 증가하는 값을 보였다. 기름 추출 수율은 육분잔사(r=-0.843)와의 유의적인 부의 상관관계를 보였다.BR (4) 동물성 기름의 주요 지방산은 Myristic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid의로 구성 되어 있었으며, 포화지방산인 palmitic acid는 최고 28.9%에서 최저 23.5%를 나타내어 유의적인 차이를 나타내었고, 불포화지방산 중 단일불포화지방산인 oleic acid은 최고 51.7%에서 최저 41.6%로 10% 이상의 차이를 보여 유의적인 차이가 인정되었다.BR (5) 동물성 기름의 지방산간의 상관분석을 통해 상관관계를 구명한 바 바이오디젤을 생산하여 계절변화에 따른 이용가치 증대를 위하여 주요 구성 지방산 중 특히 단일불포화지방산인 oleic acid를 증가시키고, 포화지방산을 적정함량 감소시키는 방향으로 연구를 집중한다면 바이오디젤 연료의 주요 품질기준인 산화안정적인 측면과 저온에서 굳어버리는 유동성의 단점을 개선할 수 있을 것으로 예상된다.BR (6) 파일럿 규모에서 추출한 동물성 기름은 산가 1.7±0.22～2.9±0.75, 수분 0.2%, 산화안정성 0.5 hr로 분석되었다.

Biodiesel Conversionion of high FFA Neem oil by blending it with low FFA Sesame oil

Biodiesel is a clean, renewable fuel and may be considered as a potential option to supplement fossil-based fuels. It is deduced from a variety of edible and non-edible vegetable oils, animal fats, waste cooking oil and animal fat, etc. Non-edible vegetable oils are second generation feedstocks and a better alternative to edible feed crops for biodiesel production.This paper deals with production of Biodiesel from the oils of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and Neem (Azadirachta indica) which are available in India and other parts of the world. Neem oil is non edible oil having very high free fatty acid (FFA) content. It requires pre-treatment neutralization step before undergoing the alkali catalyzed transesterification process, very high alcohol to oil molar ratio and comparatively larger reaction time needed to obtain sustainable yield of biodiesel. Sesame oil is an edible oil mainly used in pharmaceuticals due to its medicinal properties and has low FFA content. These two oils, one having very high FFA content and other having low FFA content are mixed in suitable proportions and this mixture is transesterified without the pre-treatment process at a molar ratio of 6:1. A significant conversion yield is achieved by mixing the feedstocks before transesterification reaction.

Co-processing of FCC light cycle oil and waste animal fats with straight run gas oil fraction

In the European Union the demand for middle distillates is growing, while decrease in the gasoline demand can be observed. Even the most complex refineries are not able to produce the economic yield distribution from the processed crude oil which constantly meets the changing market demand. The growing need of diesel fuel can only be satisfied by using unconventional feedstocks, such as bio-originated resources and less valuable refinery streams (e.g. light cycle oil with high aromatic content, >80%, from Fluid Catalytic Cracker).The aim of our experiments was the investigation (co-processing) of differently prepared mixtures from straight run gas oil (70–100%), light cycle oil (LCO: 0–10%) and waste animal fat (0–20%). There are no publicly available articles which present the use of these feedstock components. We investigated the effects of the process parameters (temperature: 300–380 °C, pressure: 40–70 bar, liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV): 0.75–2.0 h−1, H2/feedstock ratio: 600 Nm3/m3) on the quality and quantity of products obtained from different composition feedstocks. We found that with the usage of favourable parameter combination the total conversion of triglycerides and free fatty acids (FFA) into n-paraffins as well as the saturation of a significant part of the aromatic compounds and the desulphurisation of the LCO and straight run gas oil can be reached. Notable quality improvement was observed in case of all feedstock components at co-processing. High cetane number of alkanes formed from the conversion of triglycerides and FFAs, compensating the low cetane number of products (e.g. monoaromatics and diaromatics) from the saturation of polyaromatic components. Products obtained at advantageous process parameters can be excellent diesel fuel blending components, because they have low sulphur and aromatic content as well as adequate cetane number, density and cold flow properties. Besides these, they contain components from renewable sources, too.

Using waste animal fat based biodiesels–bioethanol–diesel fuel blends in a DI diesel engine

Abstract In this study, animal fat based biodiesels produced in the pilot plant were blended with certain amounts of diesel fuel and bioethanol. Neat biodiesels, diesel fuel and the blends were tested in a direct injection diesel engine and engine performance, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics were investigated. Engine tests were conducted at constant engine speed (1400 rpm) and four different engine loads (150 Nm, 300 Nm, 450 Nm and 600 Nm). The engine tests showed that the brake specific fuel consumptions (BSFC) of biodiesels were about 16% higher while those of the blends containing 20% bioethanol were about 15.7% higher than those of diesel fuel on average. The maximum cylinder gas pressures of biodiesels were about 1.2% higher than those of diesel fuel on average. The start of combustion of biodiesels occurred at earlier crank angles compared to diesel fuel, while the start of combustion occurred at later crank angles with increasing bioethanol amount in the fuel blends. According to brake specific emission results, biodiesels emitted lower carbon monoxide (CO) emissions but they emit higher carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and oxides of nitrogen (NO x ) emissions as compared to diesel fuel. THC emissions increased and CO 2 emissions reduced slightly for the blends containing bioethanol compared with B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% diesel fuel) on average.

Fuel from waste animal fats

The hunger of the modern human society for energy is tremendous, which is increasing with the increasing population and with the pursuit of higher standards of living. A significant proportion of this energy demand is made up by the different fuels which ensure mobility. Based on environmental and energetic considerations, a larger proportion of this energy is trying to be covered with renewable energy sources on the whole world. Recently mankind utilised the first generation of biofuels for the transportation sector (bioethanol and biodiesel), but the development has not stopped. Today, the second generation is on the border of utilisation (2nd gen. bioethanol and bio gas oil – mixture of iso and normal paraffins). In this article, we are focusing on the topic of 2nd generation bio derived Diesel fuel, the so-called bio gas oil. We are investigating the possibilities of the utilisation of a new, waste feedstock, namely the brown greases which are the products of rendering facilities, in co-process with high sulphur containing heavy gas oil (1.2% sulphur content). During our experiments we produced bio gas oil containing gas oil fraction via the most favourable process parameters of hydrogenation (T: 330–340°C, p: 50bar, LHSV: 1.0h−1) and isomerisation (T: 340°C, p: 50bar, 1.0h−1) of waste lard containing gas oil stream. We determined that these kinds of waste fatty materials can be appropriate feedstocks for the production of renewable diesel–fuel components. In addition, these materials are cheap, and their iLUC (indirect land use change) value is practically zero. The properties (cetane number: ⩾54, CFPP: −10 to −20°C, yield: >91%) of the product obtained after the two consecutive process steps met the valid standard for diesel fuel, thus we proved that this kind of waste feedstock can be an option for bio derived engine fuel production.

Evaluation as Fuel Diesel Engine of Methyl Esters Derived from Waste Animal Fats

The purpose of this study is to convert waste animal fats, which are harmful to the environment and human health, into biodiesel fuel and to investigate the using of biodiesel as fuel in diesel engines. For this reason, fish fat methyl ester (FFME) and chicken fat methyl ester (CFME) have been produced by transesterification method from fish fat and chicken fat. After that, methyl esters have been used as fuel in a single-cylinder, four stroke, direct injection and air-cooled diesel engine; and the effects of fuels on engine performance and exhaust emissions have been comparatively investigated with standard diesel fuel (D2). Engine tests show that the performance parameters of biodiesel fuels do not differ greatly from those of the diesel fuel. Slight power losses, combined with an increase in the fuel consumption, are experienced with the animal fat based biodiesel fuels. On the other hand, exhaust emissions (HC and CO) of FFME and CFME fuels were lower than those of diesel fuel. Taken into account of good fuel combustion characteristics and positive effects on the environment, it can be concluded that FFME and CFME fuels can be used as an alternative to diesel fuel.

An ultrasound-assisted system for the optimization of biodiesel production from chicken fat oil using a genetic algorithm and response surface methodology

Biodiesel is a green (clean), renewable energy source and is an alternative for diesel fuel. Biodiesel can be produced from vegetable oil, animal fat and waste cooking oil or fat. Fats and oils react with alcohol to produce methyl ester, which is generally known as biodiesel. Because vegetable oil and animal fat wastes are cheaper, the tendency to produce biodiesel from these materials is increasing. In this research, the effect of some parameters such as the alcohol-to-oil molar ratio (4:1, 6:1, 8:1), the catalyst concentration (0.75%, 1% and 1.25% w/w) and the time for the transesterification reaction using ultrasonication on the rate of the fatty acids-to-methyl ester (biodiesel) conversion percentage have been studied (3, 6 and 9min). In biodiesel production from chicken fat, when increasing the catalyst concentration up to 1%, the oil-to-biodiesel conversion percentage was first increased and then decreased. Upon increasing the molar ratio from 4:1 to 6:1 and then to 8:1, the oil-to-biodiesel conversion percentage increased by 21.9% and then 22.8%, respectively. The optimal point is determined by response surface methodology (RSM) and genetic algorithms (GAs). The biodiesel production from chicken fat by ultrasonic waves with a 1% w/w catalyst percentage, 7:1 alcohol-to-oil molar ratio and 9min reaction time was equal to 94.8%. For biodiesel that was produced by ultrasonic waves under a similar conversion percentage condition compared to the conventional method, the reaction time was decreased by approximately 87.5%. The time reduction for the ultrasonic method compared to the conventional method makes the ultrasonic method superior.

English

Biodiesel, one of renewable bioenergy, has been produced from various resources such as vegetable oil, animal fats, used frying oils and microbial oils etc.1–3 Extensive study has been conducted on using edible oils, which limited by the availability of oil inventories, but these materials result in high sensitivity of prices to oil demand from industry.4–7 In order to not compete with edible oils, the lowcost and profitable biodiesel should be produced from low-cost feedstocks such as non-edible oils (used frying oils, animal fats and greases etc.). However the available quantities of waste oils and animal fats are not enough to match the today demands for biodiesel. Therefore, other biofuel feedstock, microalgae, has been focused since it would not much require the agricultural land and has higher energy yields per hectare as well as very short cell cycles (within 24 hours).8 In addition, liquid culture of the microalgae can be controlled easily and even used for a waste treatment as a new source having renewable, environmental and economical sustainability.4,6,9–11 However, in making biodiesel, actually Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME), generally lipid extraction and its transesterification process produce large amount of hazardous solvent waste and are also very cumbersome.6,12,13 Automated extraction equipment such as the Soxhlet apparatus has been designed, but they require the long time of extraction process. To overcome this limitation, one step to make biodiesel, in situ transesterification (or direct transesterification from the biomass) process, has been considered where intact biomas rather than pre-extracted oil directly contacts with acidified or alkalized alcohol that acts as both an extraction solvent and an esterification reagent. This process coul reduce the long process time and also maximize biodiesel yield as well as use of reagents an solvents, etc.13–16 However, overall process of directly producing biodiesel (FAME) from fresh microalgae has not been well investigated and did not identify even key parameters in employing in situ transesterification for microalgae that contain relatively hard and rigid cell membranes, which require longer process time and larger extraction solvents, etc.17 Biodiesel Production from Scenedesmus sp. through Optimized in situ Acidic Transesterification Process

Biodiesel production from vegetable oil and waste animal fats in a pilot plant

In this study, corn oil as vegetable oil, chicken fat and fleshing oil as animal fats were used to produce methyl ester in a biodiesel pilot plant. The FFA level of the corn oil was below 1% while those of animal fats were too high to produce biodiesel via base catalyst. Therefore, it was needed to perform pretreatment reaction for the animal fats. For this aim, sulfuric acid was used as catalyst and methanol was used as alcohol in the pretreatment reactions. After reducing the FFA level of the animal fats to less than 1%, the transesterification reaction was completed with alkaline catalyst. Due to low FFA content of corn oil, it was directly subjected to transesterification. Potassium hydroxide was used as catalyst and methanol was used as alcohol for transesterification reactions. The fuel properties of methyl esters produced in the biodiesel pilot plant were characterized and compared to EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 biodiesel standards. According to the results, ester yield values of animal fat methyl esters were slightly lower than that of the corn oil methyl ester (COME). The production cost of COME was higher than those of animal fat methyl esters due to being high cost biodiesel feedstock. The fuel properties of produced methyl esters were close to each other. Especially, the sulfur content and cold flow properties of the COME were lower than those of animal fat methyl esters. The measured fuel properties of all produced methyl esters met ASTM D6751 (S500) biodiesel fuel standards.

A review of transesterification from low-grade feedstocks for biodiesel production with supercritical methanol

Biodiesel produced from renewable energy sources has been widely researched by different countries as a potential and ecologically acceptable substitute for the conventional fuel. Considering the increasing material cost and the human consumption of edible vegetable oils, low-grade raw materials involving non-edible oils, waste cooking oils, soapstocks and animal fats have drawn much interest for biodiesel production. This paper reviews the transesterification of low-grade feedstocks to convert into biodiesel with supercritical fluid technology that is more efficient and eco-friendly. This technonogy leads to simpler separation and purification steps compared with the conventional catalytic methods. The supercritical process is insensitive to free fatty acids or water in feedstocks and requires relatively short reaction time with high ester conversion yield. Besides, potential intensified technology has also been provided for reducing the biodiesel production cost to expect an early industrial application.

Rheological, Thermal, and Physicochemical Characterization of Animal Fat Wastes for use in Biodiesel Production

AbstractThe rheological, thermal and physicochemical properties of animal fat wastes (tallow, lard, choice white grease, and yellow grease) are important parameters for an efficient design of equipment and to optimize the processing procedures of biodiesel production. In this study, the physicochemical properties of animal fat waste samples and the correlation of these properties to their thermal and rheological behaviors were elucidated. Pure lard was equally investigated to monitor the effects of impurities on the rheological and thermal properties of the animal fat wastes. It was established that the presence of impurities had effects on the rheological and thermal properties of fats. Additionally, due to the high level of free fatty acid (FFA) present in the wastes, transesterification cannot be applied directly. It will be necessary to reduce the FFA level by using acid pretreatment or enzyme catalyzed transesterification.

Determination of the iodine value and the free fatty acid content of waste animal fat blends using FT-NIR

This study determined iodine value (IV) and free fatty acids (FFA) content of four different animal fat wastes and their blends using Fourier transform near-infrared spectroscopy (FT-NIR). Chemometric analysis by partial least squares (PLS) regression was used to correlate spectral data with IV and FFA reference values of the samples. The effects of four spectra pre-processing (first derivative (FD), second derivative (SD), multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) and vector normalization (VN)) methods were investigated to predict the reproducibility and robustness of the PLS-NIR model developed. A set of 70% of animal fat wastes and their blends were used for developing PLS calibration models for measuring IV and FFA content using the remaining 30% samples as an independent test set validation. The coefficient of determination (R2), the root mean square error estimation (RMSEE), and the residual prediction deviation (RPD) were used as indicators for the predictability of the PLS models. PLS-NIR models developed using first derivative and second derivative spectral preprocessing methods were the best for both IV and FFA content analysis (For IV, FD; R2=0.9870, RMSEE=1.40gI2/100g, RPD=8.76, SD; R2=0.9892, RMSEE=1.28gI2/100g, RPD=9.64 while For FFA, FD; R2=0.9991, RMSEE=0.195%, RPD=34.00, SD; R2=0.9993, RMSEE=0.182%, RPD=36.8). Overall, the results of this study demonstrate the suitability of FT-NIR spectroscopy for the quality control analysis of feedstocks for biodiesel production.

Waste animal fats as feedstocks for biodiesel production

Abstract Biodiesel, an alternate and ecologically acceptable substitute for the conventional fuel, is usually produced from a wide range of edible vegetable oils, which are normally used for human consumption and whose prices are expected to increase in the future. In this regard, reliable and low-cost raw materials have increasingly drawn interest for biodiesel production, such as by-products of the meat-processing industries or waste animal fats. This paper provides a review of the different methods employed for biodiesel production from waste animal fats employing transesterification reaction. The aim of this paper is to present the exploitation possibilities of waste animal fats as low-cost feedstocks for biodiesel production. Also, the various methods for treatment of waste animal fats such as chemical (homogeneous and heterogeneous) and enzyme catalysis as well as non-catalytic processes were considered with emphasis on the influence of the operating and reaction conditions on the process rate and the ester yield. In depth discussions were given to the process optimization, kinetics and possibilities for improvement of biodiesel production from waste animal.

Heterogeneous Solid Acid Catalysts for Esterification of Free Fatty Acids

Use of low-quality (and inexpensive) feedstock such as waste oils and animal fats for biodiesel synthesis has been continuously researched as a prospective means of improving the economic efficiency of the process. Pretreatment of free fatty acids by catalytic esterification is necessary for achieving this purpose. This paper reviews some relevant studies on heterogeneous acid catalysts that have been shown to be effective for this reaction.