Warp Interlock Fabrics Research Articles

Investigation of forming process and deformation mechanisms of 3D warp interlock fabric

This article introduces a modeling method aimed at predicting the internal geometric structure of 3D warp interlock fabric. Inspired by the digital element method, the method employs truss elements to model the yarns as fiber bundles, and considers their material properties. This technique allows for predicting the microstructure of 3D woven fabric based on simple input characteristics. By varying the elastic modulus of virtual fibers, the friction coefficient between fibers, and the tension load at the ends of yarns, and designing compression molding molds to compress the fabric into shape, the virtual fiber fabric predicted the influence of variables on the fabric. The study found that the structure of the samples obtained through CT scanning is generally consistent with the structure of the virtual fiber fabric. The elastic modulus has a relatively minor impact on the fabric structure, whereas the friction coefficient and tension load significantly affect the cross-sectional shape of the yarns. During compression molding, deformation within the mold leads to interlayer fabric slippage and changes in the cross-sectional shape of the fabric. This suggests the feasibility and applicability of virtual simulation testing methods for analyzing the behavior of various types of 3D woven fabrics.

Impact resistance of pre-deformed stab of multi-ply three-dimensional interlock polymeric fabrics

The high-performance fibres are employed largely as reinforced polymer fabrics and composites in the flexible and stiff stab-resistant personal protection equipment. To simulate the knife attack on the human body, a new methodology named pre-deformed stabbing is developed to characterise the stab performance taking into account the fabric’s deformations. Three-dimensional warp interlock fabrics (3DWIFs) were manufactured using high-molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE) yarns. The forming was performed on the tested 3DWIFs before the stabbing. The stabbing results are influenced by the different mode deformations created during the forming. Based on the in-plane shearing map, three different stabbing locations were chosen. The effect of locations on the stab resistance of 3DWIFs was explored with the same impact energy level. The effect of stabbing localization on the deformed fabric is significant. The shear-locking angle in the location area is critical for the stab resistance of both [0°/90°]8 and [0°/90°, −45°/45°]4 deformed fabrics in the studied cases.

Modelling and analysis of the mechanical and forming behaviours of 3D warp interlock carbon woven fabrics according to the structural design parameters

The 3D warp interlock carbon fabrics, which have different structural properties, were produced and their tensile, bending, shear and formability properties were tested in our previous study. However, further analyses and modelling studies are needed to have an overall understanding of the specific and complex behaviours of the 3D warp interlock carbon fabrics. The 3D warp interlock fabrics contain more number of product properties, which are number of layers, two or more number of yarns groups, the parameters of binding warp yarns and so on, in comparison with the traditional woven fabrics. This phenomenon makes difficulties for designers to choose optimal structure to obtain last product properties. The mechanical and formability behaviours of 3D warp interlock carbon fabrics were analysed in terms of the structural design parameters in the study. Thanks to the carried out analyses, the new relationships could be revealed as well as the currently known connections were proven among the fabric parameters. The formability behaviour of 3DWIF has never been statistically modelled in the previous studies. Therefore, the models were developed to predict the mechanical and formability behaviours of the 3D warp interlock carbon fabrics to bring new perspective for literature. Revealed relationships and developed models help designers to determine the best structural solution for purposed properties as well as clarify the complex behaviours of 3D warp interlock fabrics.

3D Warp Interlock Fabric Structure and their Applications in Soft and Hard Armour Protections

3D Warp Interlock Fabric Structure and their Applications in Soft and Hard Armour Protections

Investigation of the Strength Loss of HMWPE Yarns During Manufacturing Process of 3D Warp Interlock Fabrics

Investigation of the Strength Loss of HMWPE Yarns During Manufacturing Process of 3D Warp Interlock Fabrics

Investigation on the Properties of 3D Warp Interlock Fabrics Based on Moroccan Sisal Yarns as Reinforcement for Composite Materials

ABSTRACT Despite the variability of Moroccan natural resources, few Moroccan natural fibers are exploited as natural textile composites. This study aims to investigate the characteristics of 3D warp interlock fabrics based on Moroccan sisal yarns. Before weaving, the characteristics of sisal yarns have been analyzed following standards. Based on these natural yarns, six different 3D fabric architectures were manufacturing on the same manual dobby loom. During the weaving process, process parameters have been kept constant for all the 3D woven architectures to ensure a similar value for both the warp and weft yarn densities. Different values of the fabric areal density and thickness of 3D fabrics have been measured under the same test and related conditions. Different parameters play an important role on these different product parameter values as; the non-regularity of the yarn and the significant differences of warp and weft shrinkages depending on the 3D woven architecture. At the same time, yarn damage has been checked before and after the weaving of the produced 3D woven preforms. At the end of this study, new knowledge on the mechanical performance of 3D warp interlock sisal fabric have been revealed for facilitating the suited choice of architecture for a composite material solution.

Investigation of the mechanical and forming behaviour of 3D warp interlock carbon woven fabrics for complex shape of composite material

Composite materials which are reinforced with 3D warp interlock fabrics have outstanding mechanical properties such as higher delamination resistance, ballistic damage resistance and impact damage tolerance by means of their improved structural properties. Textile reinforcements are exposed to large deformations in the production stage of composite materials which have complex shape. Although good formability properties of 3D warp interlock fabrics in forming process were already proven by recent studies, further information is needed to elucidate forming behaviours of multi-layer fabrics which is produced with high stiffness yarns like carbon. In this study, 3D warp interlock carbon fabrics were produced on a prototype weaving loom and the same carbon yarn was used in two fabric directions with equal number of yarn densities. Fabrics were differentiated with regard to the presence of stuffer warp yarn, weave pattern and parameters of binding warp yarn which are angle and depth. Therefore, the effect of fabric architecture on the mechanical and formability properties of 3D warp interlock carbon fabrics could be clarified. Three different breaking behaviours of fabrics were detected and they were correlated with crimp percentages of yarn groups. In addition, the bending and shear deformations were analysed in view of parameters of fabric architectures. Two distinct forming behaviours of fabrics were determined according to the distribution of deformation areas on fabrics. Moreover, the optimal structure was identified for forming process considering the fabric architecture.

Dynamic stab resistance of multi-ply three-dimensional warp interlock fabrics with high-performance high-molecular-weight polyethylene yarns for protective applications

Fabrics constructed from 3 D warp interlock fabrics (3DWIFs) structures provide varying flexibility and durability and are promising structures for protective applications. However, its performance toward stab resistance from knife attack should be investigated before applying. In this work, the influences of fabric architectures, ply orientation of stacking sequences, and the number of fabric plies on the dynamic stab resistance are comparatively studied on high-molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE) 3DWIFs. It indicates that 3DWIF with orthogonal and through-the-thickness interlock structure reveals a helpful influence on stab resistance. Further investigation on the influence of different ply orientation of stacking sequences, based on the combination of fabrics placed at different angles, is analyzed showing a certain influence of stab resistance. Dynamic stab resistance reveals the linear correlation with a low number of fabric plies (less than 6 plies), but shows a parabolic relationship with the increase of fabric plies (more than 16 plies) until there is no penetration.

Effect of Structural Parameters on the Deformational Behaviors of Multiply 3D Layer-by-Layer Angle-Interlock Para-Aramid Fabric for Fiber-Reinforcement Composite

Materials used in the technical application including composite reinforcements and ballistic fabrics should show not only good mechanical performance but also better deformational behaviors. Meanwhile, three dimensional (3D) warp interlock fabrics have been widely employed in such applications to substitute the two dimensional (2D) fabrics because of their enhanced through-the-thickness performance and excellent formability. The deformational behaviors of such 3D warp interlock fabrics have been also influenced by various internal and external parameters. To understand and fill this gap, the current paper investigates the effects of the warp yarn interchange ratios inside the fabric structure on the formability behaviors of dry 3D warp interlock p-aramid fabrics. Four 3D warp interlock architecture types made with different binding and stuffer warp yarn interchange ratios were designed and manufactured. An adapted hydraulic-driven stamping bench along with hemispherical punch was utilized for better forming behavior analysis such as in-plane shear angle and its recovery, material drawing-in and its recovery, deformational depth recovery, and required stamping forces. Based on the investigation of various formability behaviors, the formability of (3D) warp interlock fabrics were greatly influenced by the binding and stuffer warp yarns interchange ratio inside the 3D warp interlock structure. For example, preform 3D-8W-0S exhibited a maximum deformational height recovery percentage of 5.1%, whereas 3D-4W-8S recorded only 0.72%. Preform 3D-8W-4S and 3D-8W-8S revealed 1.45% and 4.35% recovery percentages toward the deformational height at maximum position. Besides, sample 3D-4S-8W revealed the maximum drawing-in recovery percentage of 43.13% and 46.98% in the machine and cross direction, respectively, around the preform peripheral edges. On the contrary, samples with higher binding warp yarns as 3D-8W-0S show the maximum drawing-in recovery percentages values of 31.21% and 34.99% in the machine and cross directions respectively.

Fabrication and Mechanical Characterization of Dry Three-Dimensional Warp Interlock Para-Aramid Woven Fabrics: Experimental Methods toward Applications in Composite Reinforcement and Soft Body Armor.

Recently, three-dimensional (3D) warp interlock fabric has been involved in composite reinforcement and soft ballistic material due to its great moldability, improved impact energy-absorbing capacity, and good intra-ply resistance to delamination behaviors. However, understanding the effects of different parameters of the fabric on its mechanical behavior is necessary before the final application. The fabric architecture and its internal yarn composition are among the common influencing parameters. The current research aims to explore the effects of the warp yarn interchange ratio in the 3D warp interlock para-aramid architecture on its mechanical behavior. Thus, four 3D warp interlock variants with different warp (binding and stuffer) yarn ratios but similar architecture and structural characteristics were engineered and manufactured. Tensile and flexural rigidity mechanical tests were carried out at macro- and meso-scale according to standard EN ISO 13 934-1 and nonwoven bending length (WSP 90.5(05)), respectively. Based on the results, the warp yarn interchange ratio in the structure revealed strong influences on the tensile properties of the fabric at both the yarn and final fabric stages. Moreover, the bending stiffness of the different structures showed significant variation in both the warp and weft directions. Thus, the interchange rations of stuffer and binding warp yarn inside the 3D warp interlock fabric were found to be very key in optimizing the mechanical performance of the fabric for final applications.

Enhancing the Ballistic Performances of 3D Warp Interlock Fabric Through Internal Structure as New Material for Seamless Female Soft Body Armor Development

This paper investigates the effects of warp yarns ratios on the ballistic performances of three-dimensional (3D) warp interlock p-aramid fabrics. Four 3D warp interlock variants with different binding and stuffer warp yarns ratios were designed and developed. Except for warp yarns ratios, similar fabric parameters and manufacturing conditions were considered. Two-dimensional (2D) woven fabric having similar material characteristics and recommended for female seamless soft body armor are also considered for comparisons. Five ballistic panels, one from 2D plain weave fabric and the rest four from the other 3D warp interlock variants were prepared in a non-angled layer alignment and non-stitched but bust-shaped molded form. The ballistic test is carried out according to NIJ (National Institute of Justice) standard-level IIIA. Back Face Signature (BFS) was then modeled and measured to compute both trauma and panels’ energy-absorbing capability. The result showed significant ballistic improvement in the 3D warp interlock variant with optimum warp yarns ratios over traditional 2D plain weave fabrics. 3D warp interlock fabric panel made with 66.6% binding and 33.3% stuffer warp yarn ratio revealed both lower BFS depth and higher energy absorbing capacity (%) than other panels made of 2D plain weave and 3D warp interlock fabric variants.

Effect of Fabric Architecture on Tensile Behaviour of the High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene 3-Dimensional Interlock Composite Reinforcements.

As promising fibrous reinforcements in the thick composites manufacturing, 3-dimensional warp interlock fabrics (3DWIFs) are recognised more and more in the industry for their outstanding mechanical properties compared to the 2D laminates. The present work shows the influence of the fabric’s architecture on the tensile behaviour of 3DWIFs. Five kinds of 3D fabrics with different interlock structures have been designed according to the main category of binding warp yarn evolution. These five 3DWIFs, containing both binding and stuffer warp yarns and produced with the same warp and weft densities, are experimentally tested via uniaxial tensile tests. The experimental results of the different 3DWIFs have been compared to find the optimal solution based on several mechanical performances. Fabric structures have an impact on tensile properties both in the warp and weft directions. Furthermore, other influential factors, for example, the yarn crimps during the weaving process and the crimp angles of binding warp yarns in 3DWIFs, are investigated and discussed in the paper. The influence of the total crimp angles related to the binding path on the tensile properties of 3DWIFs via the inter yarns friction is summarised.

Design and development of a piezo-resistive sensor based on PEDOT: PSS applied to Sisal’s natural fiber for monitoring of 3D warp Interlock fabric

The aim of the current study is to develop and optimize a flexible sensor based on a natural sisal fiber. Based on this sensor yarn, different fibrous reinforcements of 3D warp interlock fabrics used in composite materials could be monitored. This natural yarn (Sisal) has been pre-coated with a layer of PVA solution which makes it possible to homogenize the surface of the yarn and serves as a substrate for the coating phase. A copper metal wire was used as a connecting device to the measurement acquisition system. Some Conductive Polymers Composite (CPC) based on PEDOT: PSS are compared and used as a coating layer in order to get the conductive appearance of the sensor yarn. A sensor calibration step was carried out which consists in testing the sensor yarn on a MTS traction bench while measuring their resistance variation simultaneously. The electromechanical behavior of the different types of sensors will be compared and discussed. Insertion of these developed sensors within 3D woven structures will be helpful for local monitoring and check the inner local elongation of the 3D warp interlock fabric during tensile tests.

Influent product and process parameters on the mechanical behaviour of 3D warp interlock fabrics made with E-glass yarns

3D weaving process has been more and more used as reinforcement for composite materials. However, 3D weaving applications are recent and the mechanical properties of the 3D warp interlock fabrics are not well known. Tensile tests have been performed both in the warp and weft directions of the fabrics, indeed they lead to different behaviour regarding the architecture. Results from experiments have been statistically analysed using PLS regression. This study led to correlations between fabrics parameters and mechanical behaviour. Moreover, it revealed that fabrics parameters such as the binding type, the yarns crimp and the picks density have influence on the quasi-static mechanical behaviour.

Development of 3D warp interlock fabrics based on moroccan natural fibers

The aim of this research is the valorization of Moroccan natural resources through the manufacturing of innovative 3D interlocks textiles. In order to investigate the potential of the sisal yarns used into 3D warp interlock fabrics, the 3D fabrics were studied at multi-scales (micro-scale, meso-scale and macro-scale). Before starting the manufacture of the 3D fabrics, different physical properties of the sisal fibers were analyzed according to standards. At the meso-scale, the mechanical and thermal properties of the sisal yarns constituting the 3D warp interlock fabric were studied according to standards. After these yarns and fibers characterizations, different types of architecture of the 3D warp interlock fabric have been designed and produced. Some difficulties have been revealed during the weaving process, which highlights the difficulty to handle the sisal yarns in order to obtain 3D fabrics to be used as a future fibrous reinforcement for composite material.

Ballistic impact performance and surface failure mechanisms of two-dimensional and three-dimensional woven p-aramid multi-layer fabrics for lightweight women ballistic vest applications

This paper investigates the influences of woven fabric type, impact locations and number of layers on ballistic impact performances of target panels through trauma dimension and panel surface damage mechanisms for lightweight women ballistic vest design. Three panels with 30, 35 and 40 layers of two-dimensional plain weave and another two panels with 30 and 40 layers of three-dimensional warp interlock fabrics were prepared. The three-dimensional woven fabric was manufactured using automatic Dornier weaving machine, whereas the two-dimensional fabric (with similar p-aramid fibre type (Twaron®)) was received from the Teijin Company. The ballistic tests were carried out according to NIJ Standard-0101.06 Level IIIA. Based on the result, woven fabric construction type, number of layers and target locations were directed an upshot on the trauma measurement values of the tested target panels. For example, 40 layers of two-dimensional plain weave fabric panels show lower trauma measurement values as compared to its counterpart three-dimensional warp interlock fabric panels with similar layer number. Moreover, 40 layers of two-dimensional fabric panels revealed 47% and 39% trauma depth reduction as compared to panels with 30 layers of two-dimensional fabric panel in moulded (target point 1) and non-moulded (target point 6), respectively. Due to higher amount of primary yarn involvement, two-dimensional plain weave fabric panel face higher level of local surface damages but less severe and fibrillated yarns than three-dimensional warp interlock fabrics panels. Moreover, three-dimensional warp interlock fabric panels required higher number of layers compared to two-dimensional plain weave aramid fabrics to halt the projectiles. Similarly, based on the post-mortem analysis of projectile, higher projectile debris deformation was recorded for panels having higher number of layers for both types of fabrics at similar target locations.

3D warp interlocks p-aramid fabrics for composite reinforcement and ballistic vest applications: Effect of yarn density on its formability characteristics

The material forming capability becomes one of the most important characteristic of textile performance in the manufacturing of three-dimensional (3D) components to fit a 3D surface in various technical applications. In this study, different forming characteristics of 3D warp interlock fabrics in dry fabric condition were investigated. 3D warp interlock architecture with different areal density from same para-aramid yarn with a linear density of 168dtex were systematically designed and produced on automatic dobby loom with standard atmospheric conditions. The approach utilizes a low speed forming process with a predefined hemispherical shape of punch for the analysis of different forming behaviour of the fabrics specimen. The same blank-holder pressure was chosen for all the samples for better comparisons. Among several forming properties, some important characteristics have been observed, measured and analysed for a better understanding of the material forming behaviour of the different samples specimen. The research results with independent warp and weft yarn densities show a significant impact on the forming behaviours 3D warp interlock fabric. Moreover, the result of the investigation also will give a better understanding on different forming behaviours of 3D warp interlock fabric with various densities while applying in different textile application including women soft body armour.

Engineering of 3D warp interlock p-aramid fabric structure and its energy absorption capabilities against ballistic impact for body armour applications

3D warp interlock fabric became a promising structure to develop women body armour due to its good mouldability. However, its performance toward ballistic impact for different threats should be investigated before applying. This paper aims to investigate the ballistic performances of 3D interlock p-aramid (Twaron®) fabric panels’ against NIJ (National Institute of Justice) standard–0101.06 Level-IIIA. The intended fabric was manufactured on a semi-automatic loom in GEMTEX Laboratory. 2D plain weave fabric with similar fibre type was also tested for comparison. Various target panels from each structure were arranged and moulded at pre-defined points using an adapted bust-shape forming bench to resemble frontal female body contour. Based on the result, the energy absorption capabilities of 3D interlock and 2D fabric panels with a higher number of layers did not reveal a significant difference. However, the 2D fabric panel absorbed more energy than 3D warp interlock fabrics for a reduced and similar number of layers due to its rigid and stiffness property. Besides, both fabric types had shown less energy transmission to the backing material at the non-moulded target areas as compared to the moulded target area. While shaping the intended panel, 3D interlock fabric revealed better mouldability and less recovery behaviour with less wrinkle formations.

New Textile Composite Solutions for Armouring of Vehicles

In today’s scenario, numerous studies have shown a great interest on 3D woven structures like 3D warp interlock fabric as a fibre reinforcement for composite material to provide a better impact than 2D laminated fabrics with unlinked structures in the thickness. The impact energy absorption capacity depends on different and independent parameters, including the shape and speed of the projectile, the type of fibrous structure (geometry), the type and nature of the threads (raw material, linear density, and twisting value), and the type of impregnation of the composite material. As part of our research work on hard impact protection solutions, the interest of textile composite structures, in particular those integrating 3D warp interlock fabrics, has been revealed. Based on the result, protection solutions with such fabric structure revealed larger dynamic deformation capacity for absorbing the impact energy as compared with not only a ceramic material facing a 12.7 mm ammunition (mass 43 g) at 610 m/s but also those solutions made with metallic materials facing a FSP (diameter 20 mm, mass 54 g) at 630 m/s and 1600 m/s. For each of these different threats, a specific type of composite material has to be used. These composite material solutions are mainly defined to respond to the appropriate mode of impact behaviour.

Influence of 3D warp interlock fabrics parameters made with flax rovings on their final mechanical behaviour

The three-dimensional weaving process enables to produce near-net shaped complex preforms used as reinforcement of composite materials. However, the lack of knowledge on the mechanical behaviour of these three-dimensional woven structures may restrict their use for composite material. To fill this gap, we have tempted to highlight their specific mechanical properties according to their endogenous parameters. Based on these different architectures produced on the same weaving loom, several non-impregnated coupons have been mechanically characterized in all the directions of the three-dimensional warp interlock fabrics with quasi-static tensile tests in warp and weft directions as well as in-plane shear tests. According to our analyses, it has been revealed that the combination of several parameters as the woven pattern, the end and pick densities and the presence or not of stuffer warp yarns inside the three-dimensional fabrics may significantly influence the mechanical behaviour of the three-dimensional warp interlock architectures.