Warm Days Research Articles

Spatiotemporal Changes in Mean and Extreme Climate: Farmers’ Perception and Its Agricultural Implications in Awash River Basin, Ethiopia

The increase in the intensity and frequency of climate extremes threatens socioeconomic development. This study examines variability of mean and extreme climate, farmers’ perception of the changes, and impacts in the Awash River Basin. Daily rainfall and temperature data were used to analyze 23 extreme climate indices. The Mann–Kendall test was used to assess the magnitude and significance of the changes. Results show an increase in minimum (0.019–0.055 °C/year) and maximum temperatures (0.049–0.09 °C/year), while total rainfall is on a downward trend (from −3.84 mm/year to −10.26 mm/year). Warm extreme temperature indicators, including warmest day (TXx), warmest night (TNx), warm day (TX90p), warm night (TN90p), and warm spell duration indicator (WSDI), show a significant increasing trend (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, except the tepid–cool humid agroecology zone, cold extreme temperature indicators in cool days (TN10p), cool nights (TX10p), and cold spell duration (CSDI) are declining. Extreme precipitation indices, including maximum 1-day precipitation amount (RX1day), count of days when precipitation ≥10 mm (R10 mm), maximum 5-day precipitation amount (RX5day), count of days when precipitation ≥20 mm (R20mm), very wet days (R95p), extreme wet days (R99p), and total precipitation (PRCPTOT), show a decreasing trend. The perception of most farmers’ on climate change and climate extremes agreed with climate records. The major impacts perceived and asserted over all agroecologies are food price inflation, crop productivity decline, crop pests and diseases spread, livestock disease increase, and the emergence of pests and weeds. The increasing trend in extreme warm temperatures, decreasing trend in the cold extreme, and declining trend in precipitation indicators affected agricultural productivity and farmers whose livelihood depends on rainfed agriculture. This agroecology-specific study provides critical information to policymakers, decision makers, and farmers about the potential impacts of climate change and extreme events, leading to the development of agroecology-based adaptation measures.

Analyses of Spatial Distribution and Temporal Trends of Temperature and Its Extremes over Nigeria using Climate Indices

Climate change and its associated extreme climate and extreme events are threat to man and his environment. Over the years, climatic parameters have been used as climate change indicators to study climate change. In order to access extreme climate due to climate change in Nigeria, this paper attempt to evaluate spatial distribution and temporal trends of temperature and its extremes over Nigeria for 35 years (1979 - 2013). Daily temperature data used were obtained from the Nigeria Meteorological Agency (NIMET), Lagos. The data was subjected to quality checked and homogenization. Climate extreme indices developed by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) was adopted in this study. The data were analysed employing Sen’s slope estimator and Mann-Kendall test. Results revealed that spatial distribution of temperature and its extremes over Nigeria varied across the country, increasing/decreasing mostly towards the northern or the coastal regions. Significant increase was observed at p < 0.05 in the temporal trends of averages of yearly maximum and minimum temperature and hot temperature indices in all the regions in line with the global warming trend. The increase in warm days and warm nights doubled the rate at which cold days and cold nights decreased in most of the study areas. The annual and decadal changes in temperature and its extremes as well as the period under investigation (35 years) were determined. Our findings depict that the country is trending towards a drier and warmer climate which are clear evidence of climate change. The results further suggest that the Atlantic Ocean and the Sahara Desert which control the atmospheric condition of the country may be promoter of the observed extreme events caused by climate change in Nigeria. This study discussed contemporary issues in our society which are useful to the general populace, researchers, and policy makers among others.
 HIGHLIGHTS
 
 Spatial distribution of temperature and its extremes over Nigeria varied across the country from one region to another
 Maximum and minimum temperature and hot temperature indices increased significantly (p < 0.05) in all the regions in line with the global warming trend
 The increase in warm days/nights doubled the rate at which cold days/cold nights decreased in most of the regions
 Our findings suggest that Atlantic Ocean and Sahara Desert which control the atmospheric conditions of Nigeria may promote extreme events caused by climate change in Nigeria
 
 GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Shelter use by horses during summer in relation to weather conditions and horsefly (Tabanidae) prevalence

National legislation requires shelter access for horses kept outside during winter, whereas there are no requirements for shelter access to provide shade and a refuge from biting insects during summer. This study investigated use of artificial shelters by 10 horse groups continuously for eight summer weeks (2019: 5 groups, 2020: 5 groups, n = 42, 3 – 5 horses per group). Shelter use was recorded every 30 min, using wildlife cameras mounted inside the shelters, i.e., 48 recordings per day for 56 days (a total of 2688 recordings per group where each horse inside the shelter was identified and its behaviour noted). Daily weather conditions were recorded, and horsefly (Tabanidae) prevalence was quantified one day per week using H-traps (i.e. eight trap catches per group). The groups represented a variety of compositions (horse breed, age, gender) and shelter types (design, size). Across all groups and shelter types, shelter use increased on warmer days and the daily rhythm of shelter-seeking behaviour changed; on warmer days, shelter-seeking increased significantly during the day, whereas night-time use was unaffected. Further, significantly more horses were inside on days with the highest trap catch of horseflies compared to days with the lowest catch. We conclude that regardless of group composition and shelter type, horses make increased use of artificial shelters on warm summer days. Since all horses had access to natural shade in their pastures and shelter temperatures were generally higher than outdoor temperatures, we suggest that the increased shelter use on warm summer days was related to nuisance from biting insects. This is supported by the higher shelter use on days with a high horsefly catch. We recommend provision of shelter access to horses kept on summer pastures with limited opportunities to seek natural refuge from biting insects.

Subseasonal to Annual Long-Term Trends in Climate Extremes Over East Asia, 1981–2021

This study examines the up-to-date observed trends of subseasonal to annual range climate extremes over the East Asia region using the high-resolution global unified gauge-based analysis of the NOAA Climate Prediction Center for 1981–2021. The spatial extent of extreme events is identified using the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI)-based modified climate extreme index (EmCEI) with five subcomponents (maximum temperature, minimum temperature. total rainfall, heavy rainfall, and wet and dry days). By combining the spatiotemporal fields into a simple index, trends in climate extremes are systematically obtained in various time ranges. Annual and semi-annual long-term trends in East Asia showed a statistically significant increase in the percentage of area affected by the upper-extreme climate (warm days, warm nights, wet extreme) and concurrently by the decrease of lower-extreme climate (cool days, cool nights, dry extreme). As the time range becomes higher, the tendency is consistent but extremeness depends on seasons and calendar months. The total EmCEI shows an increasing trend greater in the warm (summer) season than in the cold (winter) season. The temperature extreme components (C1 and C2) are dominated in spring and summer. In the subseasonal months, March has the highest trend among the calendar months both in C1 and C2. The increasing trend is consistently distinct in the 2010s for all time ranges and all components. The long-term trend in winter exhibits distinctive features of the smallest increase than in other seasons and months caused by robust interannual to multidecadal variability in the 1990s–2000s. The area affected by heavy rainfall is mainly dominated in summer while the total rainfall and wet day extreme extend in summer and fall, respectively. The EmCEI suggests that the change in the spatial extent of climate extremes is mainly caused by a shift in temperature and rainfall distributions toward warm and wet extremes over East Asia.

Analysing climatic variability and extremes events in the Himalayan regions focusing on mountainous urban agglomerations

The present study highlights the long-term variations in temperature and precipitation using time series datasets of CRU and ERA5-Land across the Himalayan region. The Mann-Kendall and Sen’s slope-based trend analysis exhibited an apparent warming trend in the region, with higher increase in Tmin (1.5 °C) and comparatively lower increase in Tmax (0.8 °C) during 1901–2018. The joint CCl/WCRP/JCOMM based 19 extreme indices elucidated an increasing frequency of warm days (16%) in Central Himalayan urban agglomerations (HUAs) with a declining number of cold days (−6%) and cold nights (−4%) during 2000–2019. The moderate decline in the wet days (8%) and consecutive wet days (−5 days/20 years) observed in all HUAs compared to an increasing frequency of the consecutive dry days (3 days/20 years). Study reported higher warming in Kathmandu UA, while increased precipitation in Srinagar UA, and contributes to framing climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies in the mountainous system.

Analysis of Climate Change Indices in Musanze District, Rwanda

This study used daily rainfall, minimum temperature, and maximum temperature data from the Rwanda Meteorology Agency (Meteo Rwanda) for the years 1983 - 2016 to analyze climate change indices in the Musanze district of Rwanda. Rainfall and temperature extreme indices were determined using the methodology provided by Expert Team on Climate Change Detection Monitoring Indices (ETCCDMI). Climate Data Tool (CDT), which is R-based package developed by International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) was used to compute the indices. Sen's slope estimator and the modified Mann-Kendall (m-MK) test were both applied to identify trends and determine the degree of change. The Monthly Temperature (TXx, TXn, TNx, and TNn) indices generally showed a warming in the eastern and a cooling in the western parts of the district, according to the trend results; however, the Minimum tail of temperature indices showed a slightly reduced cooling which is a sign of warm nights and hot days in highland areas of volcanic region. For the same period, the district's eastern regions have higher precipitation intensity and wetness, which gradually declines toward the middle and western regions. In addition, a considerable upward trend in the annual total precipitation for days above the 95th percentile (very wet days) and the annual count for precipitation equal or greater than 20 mm (very heavy precipitation days). Additionally, temperature indices showed a large rise in the minimum and maximum values of daily minimum temperatures, annual minimum and maximum values of daily maximum temperatures, and the percentage of days with daily maximum temperatures above the 90th percentile (warm days). In view of these evolving trends in weather and climate patterns, the study recommends local farmers and other stakeholders involved in socioeconomic activities in the district to implement the necessary climate change mitigation and adaptation measures.

Your outdoor calendar: June

Early summer is so very full of promise – get active outdoors to make the most of warm days and light evenings, suggests Julie Mountain

Estimation of loads for off-grid solar photovoltaic systems

Solar power is a renewable energy technology that turns sunlight into electricity using solar panels. The generated electricity can be stored or utilized immediately, returned to the grid, or combined with a renewable electricity source or several renewable technologies solar energy systems are a supply that is both dependable and environmentally friendly of energy that may be used for a range of applications, including commercial, industry, farming, and livestock needs. The system requires practically no maintenance, making it perfect for isolated locations. The near-zero operating costs outweigh the initial hefty installation costs. When evaluated at an ambient temperature of 25°C, a typical photovoltaic (PV) module outputs power with a maximum output voltage of roughly 17V. However, on a very warm day, it can drop to around 15V, and on a very freezing day, it can drop to around 15V, it can soar to 18V.

Contribution of root system architecture and function in the performance of tropical maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes under different moisture regimes

Understanding how roots respond to increasing rate of evapotranspiration in warmer days and exposure to dry spells is crucial for saving productivity of rainfed crops, including maize, grown in Asian tropics. In a semi-automatic root phenotyping facility (lysimetric system) a set of 100 elite and diverse tropical maize inbred lines were phenotyped under managed drought stress (DT) and well-watered (WW) conditions. Plants were grown in PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) cylinder of 30.0 cm diameter and 150.0 cm length. In drought experiment, last irrigation was applied based accumulated growing degree days (∑GDD) criteria to achieved reproductive stress DT, whereas optimal moisture was maintained in WW trials. Data recorded on various root structural and function traits in both DT and WW trials. Significant phenotypic variability was observed for various root traits, including both structural and functional traits, under both the moisture regimes. Correlation studies showed that grain yield of early maturity group of genotypes was positively and significantly associated with all the root structural traits under drought, whereas, in case of medium and late maturity group of entries root structural traits showed either weak positive or significant negative correlation with grain yield under drought. Though, root functional traits of all the maturity group of genotypes showed positive and significant correlations with both grain yield and total biomass under both well-watered drought stress. Regression analysis showed that water uptake had significant positive relationship with total biomass in all the three-maturity group of genotypes. However, grain yield seems to be less dependent directly on the total amount of water uptake. We conclude that contribution of various traits in root system architecture under drought or well-watered conditions vary with maturity of genotypes. However, root functional traits, such as water uptake and transpiration efficiency are equally important across maturity groups and water availability regimes.

Design and Fabrication of Refrigerant Based Air Cooler

Abstract: With the recent government organization and regulation for saving the water, trees, curtains to the use of these sources which contribute to global warming present day mankind uses various equipment in their daily need which includes conventional cooler, AC etc. This consumes large amount of water and electricity so for reducing the use of these main sources research involves the use of VCRS system which include eco-friendly refrigerant R134a in cooler system. This system is mounted in the research model in a proper manner so that it is compact in size. The refrigerant R134a absorbs the heat from air and makes the air cooled, itself getting vaporized in evaporator and then the cooled air is sent outward from the opening. In the research model with help of fan running on motor and gives the cooling effect. This use of VCRS system with eco -friendly refrigerant reduces the consumption of the water, electricity consumption and tree which is used for making wood wool in conventional cooler. This ultimately reduces the global warming. For making these purposes the project is developed. Keywords: Compressor, condenser, evaporator, refrigerant(R134a), expansion device

Literature Review on Design and Fabrication of Refrigerant Based Air Cooler

Abstract: With the recent government organization and regulation for saving the water, trees, curtains to the use of these sources which contribute to global warming present day mankind uses various equipment in their daily need which includes conventional cooler, AC etc. This consumes large amount of water and electricity so for reducing the use of these main sources research involves the use of VCRS system which include eco-friendly refrigerant R134a in cooler system. This system is mounted in the research model in a proper manner so that it is compact in size. The refrigerant R134a absorbs the heat from air and makes the air cooled, itself getting vaporized in evaporator and then the cooled air is sent outward from the opening. In the research model with help of fan running on motor and gives the cooling effect. This use of VCRS system with eco -friendly refrigerant reduces the consumption of the water, electricity consumption and tree which is used for making wood wool in conventional cooler. This ultimately reduces the global warming. For making these purposes the project is developed. Keywords: Compressor, condenser, evaporator, refrigerant(R134a), expansion device

Simulation and Projection of Climate Extremes in China by a Set of Statistical Downscaled Data.

This study assesses present-day extreme climate changes over China by using a set of phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) statistical downscaled data and raw models outputs. The downscaled data is produced by the adapted spatial disaggregation and equal distance cumulative distribution function (EDCDF) method at the resolution of 0.25° × 0.25° for the present day (1961–2014) and the future period (2015–2100) under the Shared Socioeconomic Path-way (SSP) 2-4.5 than SSP5-8.5 emission scenario. The results show that the downscaling method improves the spatial distributions of extreme climate events in China with higher spatial pattern correlations, Taylor Skill Scores and closer magnitudes no matter single model or multi model ensemble (MME). In the future projections, large inter-model variability between the downscaled models still exists, particular for maximum consecutive 5-day precipitation (RX5). The downscaled MME projects that total precipitation (PTOT) and RX5, will increase with time, especially for the northwest China. The projected heavy precipitation days (R20) also increase in the future. The region of significant increase in R20 locates in the south of river Yangtze. Maxi-mum annual temperature (TXX) and percentage of warm days (TX90p) are projected to increase across the whole country with larger magnitude over the west China. Projected changes of minimum annual temperature (TNN) over the northeastern China is the most significant area. The higher of the emission scenario, the more significant of extreme climates. This reveals that the spatial distribution of extreme climate events will become more uneven in the future.

Seasonal shift in carabid phenology over a period of 18 years

The present study is based on a 20-year study of fields that were previously farmed conventionally and then changed to being farmed organically and a 10-year study of a conventionally farmed field in south-eastern and central Schleswig-Holstein, North Germany, respectively. The carabid beetles were sampled throughout each year using pitfall traps. The analysis aimed to study the changes in the phenology in terms of activity-density associated with changing climate. Climate data revealed an increase in temperature during the period of this study, which was not significant during the single study periods, but significant if a longer period of 70 years is considered. In particular, spring temperatures (March/April) increased. Approximately 36% of the species became active earlier. For 25% of the species their earlier start was not significant but nevertheless associated with temperature increase in spring or the number of cold days (< 0°C) and warm days (> 5°C) in March/April. In total, the earlier start of 69% of the species can in some way be associated with a change in climate in spring. Species with a flexible response to temperature were mostly indifferent to the temperature increase. Comparisons of the data over the 30-year period indicate that the process lasted for at least one to three decades. It is likely that the changes in biological processes caused by global climate change will affect the composition of species and competition between them in the future.

Response of Red-Tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) to an Unintentionally Provided, Superabundant Prey Resource

ABSTRACT The presence of superabundant prey resources can influence the abundance and distribution of raptors. To investigate how an unintentionally provided prey superabundance may affect the regional distribution of raptors, we extracted data on Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) observations from eBird (ebird.org) for a 3.3-km2 region surrounding a Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) production facility and 1.6-ha composting facility in Ithaca, New York, USA. Then we extracted data from a 3990-km2 block centered on this “game farm/compost” region. On average, hawk counts were greater near the game farm/compost region (mean = 4.28 ± 3.09 SE) than in the surrounding buffer (mean = 0.14 ± 0.12 SE), with numbers increasing through the fall and winter. Similarly, more vultures were counted near the game farm/compost region (mean = 8.4 ± 4.9 SE) than in the surrounding buffer (mean = 0.24 ± 0.29 SE), with numbers peaking during late summer and early fall. To examine fine-scale patterns at the game farm/compost region, we conducted point counts at least three times per week from September 2019 through January 2020. The mean number of hawks per point count was 7.57 (±0.97 SE); numbers increased through the winter, with greater numbers detected later in the day and at lower temperatures. Hawk counts were not correlated with precipitation or snow cover. The mean number of vultures was 16.2 (±2.05 SE), with the greatest counts in February and during the warmest days; fewer vultures were detected during precipitation and during snow cover. This research demonstrates that an unintentionally provided, superabundant prey resource can influence raptor abundance and distribution.

The Association between Weather and Emergency Department Visitation for Diabetes in Roanoke, Virginia.

Diabetes mellitus imposes a significant and increasing health burden on the US population. Our objective is to determine if weather is related to daily variations in emergency department (ED) visits for diabetes mellitus in Roanoke, Virginia. A time series of daily ED visits for diabetes mellitus at the Carilion Clinic in southwestern Virginia is associated with daily minimum temperature from 2010-2017. Associations between ED visits (through a 14-day lag period) and temperature are examined using generalized additive models and distributed lag nonlinear models. Heat and cold waves are identified at low and high thresholds, and ED visitation during these events is compared to prior control periods using a time-stratified case crossover approach. ED visits for diabetes exhibit a U-shaped relationship with temperature, with a higher relative risk (RR) during cold events (RR = 1.05) vs. warm events (RR = 1.02). When minimum temperatures are below freezing, ED visitation peaks starting 2days afterward, with RRs approaching 1.04. The RR on warm days (minimum temperature > 10°C) approaches 1.02 but peaks on the day of or the day following the elevated temperatures. Cold waves increase the odds of ED visits by up to 11% (p = 0.01), whereas heat waves exhibit no significant effect (p = 0.07). The increasing health burden linked to diabetes requires new research on environmental factors that might exacerbate related illness. When examined in the context of climate change impacts on local weather variations, these kinds of linkages between environment and disease can aid in facility staffing and public health messaging during extreme weather events.

Long-term trends in daily extreme air temperature indices in Ireland from 1885 to 2018

Long-term instrumental series are crucial to analyse extreme air temperature indices and to examine modern climate warming within a historical context. This research provides the first assessment in Ireland of the frequency, duration, intensity and geographical distribution of the daily extreme air temperature indices recommended by the ETCCDI (Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices) and based on long-term rescued, quality-controlled and homogenised data. Prior analysis of air temperature indices in Ireland had focused on the period since the second half of the 20th century, where digital data were readily available. Earlier estimations of long-term air temperature trends in Ireland focused on non-homogenised data from a small network of stations. For this research, 11 long-term (1885–2018) maximum and minimum air temperature series were analysed to assess seasonal and annual trends and construct extreme air temperature indices in Ireland. The non-parametric Mann-Kendall test was employed to test the statistical significance of the maximum and minimum air temperatures and indices trends (p < 0.05). Significant increasing trends were assessed in the seasonal and annual maximum and minimum air temperature series in Ireland, with greater increases in the spring and autumn seasons. Significant increasing trends were determined in the warm days (+6.8 days), warm nights (+7.5 nights), warm spell duration index (+3.9 days), growing season length (+22 days), coldest night (+2.7 °C) and coldest day (+1.5 °C) in the period 1885–2018 in Ireland. In the same period, significant decreasing trends were identified in the cold days (−9.3 days), cold nights (−7 nights), frost days (−13.7 days), cold spell duration index (−6.9 days) and diurnal air temperature range (−0.1 °C) in Ireland. The results follow global patterns presented in the Six Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The findings of this research will be crucial to assist stakeholders and policymakers in defining climate action, adaptation and mitigation plans in response to shifting trends in air temperature extremes.

Agri-Food Waste as a Method for Weed Control and Soil Amendment in Crops

The continued and extensive use of synthetic herbicides to control weeds to maximize crop yield is no longer sustainable, as it results in negative impacts on the environment and human health. Innovative sustainable and resilient food production systems should preserve resources and environmental health by incorporating alternative natural herbicides, recycling waste, and favoring a circular economy. The present work assesses the value of different organic waste (Urtica dioica residues, Vicia faba pods, spent coffee grounds, and corn cobs) as bioherbicides and fertilizers in different seasons through pot and field two-year sequential experiments. Pot assays revealed that V. faba pods, spent coffee grounds, and corn cob waste showed the best inhibitory effect, which were subsequently evaluated in the Spring–Summer and Autumn crops. In the field, spent coffee grounds reduced the biomass of total naturally-emerged weeds and stimulated crop growth under scarce rainfall and warm days. However, its effect varied under different environmental conditions. Spent coffee grounds can partially control weeds in the field, which valorizes them as a bioherbicide and boosts sustainable agriculture.

Multi-Model Ensemble Projections of Winter Extreme Temperature Events on the Chinese Mainland.

Based on the downscaling data of multi-model ensembles of 26 global climate models (GCMs) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6, this study calculated the extreme climate indices defined by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices and the warm winter extreme grade indices to explore winter climate response on the Chinese mainland under different shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) and representative concentration pathways. The results showed that the temperature in winter increased overall, with the highest temperature increases of 0.31 °C/10a (Celsius per decade) (SSP245) and 0.51 °C/10a (SSP585) and the lowest temperature increases of 0.30 °C/10a (SSP245) and 0.49 °C/10a (SSP585). Warm-related extreme weather events such as warm days and warm spell duration indices showed an increasing trend, whereas cold-related extreme weather events such as cold spell duration indices, cold nights, ice days, and frost days showed a decreasing trend. On the regional scale, the maximum temperature increased by more than 2 °C/10a (SSP245) and 0.4 °C/10a (SSP585), except in South China, and the minimum temperature increased faster in Qinghai-Tibet and Northeast China compared to elsewhere on the Chinese mainland. Compared with that under SSP585, the frequency and intensity of warm winters in the latter half of the 21st century were lower under SSP245. At the end of the 21st century, under the SSP245 scenario, warm winter frequency in most regions will be reduced to below 60%, but under the SSP585 scenario, it will be more than 80%. Population exposures all showed a downward trend, mainly due to the reduction of warm winter events and the decline of the population under the SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios, respectively. If the greenhouse gas emission path is controlled in the SSP245 scenario, the population exposure risk in warm winters can be decreased by 25.87%. This study observed a consistent warming trend on the Chinese mainland under all SSPs in the 21st century and found that stricter emission reduction policies can effectively decrease the population exposure to warm winters.

Differences in phenology, daily timing of activity, and associations of temperature utilization with survival in three threatened butterflies

We used observational data collected during a mark-recapture study that generated a total of 7503 captures of 6108 unique individuals representing three endangered butterfly species to quantify inter-and intraindividual variation in temperature utilization and examine how activity patterns vary according to season, time of day, and ambient temperature. The Marsh Fritillary, the Apollo, and the Large Blue differed in utilized temperatures and phenology. Their daily activity patterns responded differently to temperature, in part depending on whether they were active in the beginning, middle or end of the season, in part reflecting interindividual variation and intraindividual flexibility, and in part owing to differences in ecology, morphology, and colouration. Activity temperatures varied over the season, and the Apollo and the Large Blue were primarily active at the highest available ambient temperatures (on the warmest days and during the warmest part of the day). The Marsh Fritillary was active early in the season and decreased activity during the highest temperatures. The relationship between individual lifespan and the average temperature was qualitatively different in the three species pointing to species-specific selection. Lifespan increased with an increasing range of utilized temperatures in all species, possibly reflecting that intra-individual flexibility comes with a general survival benefit.

Warm Air Leads to Hazardous Ground Temperatures When Walking Dogs in Built and Natural Environments

Two case studies in Texas, one in a built environment and another in a natural setting, illustrate potential ground heat hazards when walking dogs on warm days. In the first case, temperatures of four different ground surfaces—concrete, grass, chip seal, and tar—were measured along a street in a suburban neighborhood. The study involved two morning and two afternoon surveys of 30 sampling locations where all four materials were present. Air temperatures, typical of the study area in summer, ranged from 78.0 oF (25.6 oC) in the morning to 96.1 oF (35.6 oC) in the afternoon. Ground surfaces reached much higher temperatures, exceeding 150 oF (65.6 oC), in the afternoon surveys. Median temperatures were highest in tar, followed by chip seal, concrete, and grass. The second case involved shallow lake water and various types of mud, sand, cobbles, rock fragments, and grass along a nature trail. Air temperatures ranged from 74.7 oF (23.7 oC) at 8:00 a.m. to 92.5 oF (33.6 oC) at 6:00 p.m. Ground temperatures varied considerably with material and time of day, ranging from 76.4 oF (24.7 oC) at gray cobbles and beige rock at 8:00 a.m. to 125.7 oF (52.1 oC) at brown sand at 4:00 p.m. Over the day, temperatures were highest at brown sand and lowest in water and moist sand.&#x0D;