War Damage Research Articles

The bombing of Pompeii in 1943

In 1943, Pompeii was the object of bombing raids by the Allied forces, a sad and forgotten chapter in the history of the ancient city, which is a topical and prominent issue in light of the recent destruction and war damage suffered by many archaeological sites and museums in the Middle East and North Africa. Along with many Roman buildings, the raids also affected the Museo Pompeiano, resulting in the destruction of most of the objects exhibited. The Museum had been set up according to modern and innovative concepts for the time, and the damage proved to be severe and irreparable, as many of the antiquities on display were of known provenance and contextualized, but still unpublished. After the end of the Second World War, a part of the objects recovered from the ruins of the building were considered hopelessly lost and therefore completely neglected. Among them were hundreds of bronzes belonging to different functional categories: an ongoing project aimed at restoring and studying these artifacts has revealed their potential and some unexpected data, illuminating their complex biography(ies). An attempt is being made to recontextualize these objects in order to trace their provenance on the basis of inventories, archival documents and the bibliography concerning the Museum and its last pre-war layout.

“Ik ben zoo diep gezakt door deze oorlog”

During the German occupation of the Netherlands in the 1940s, crime rates for petty theft rose considerably. As a result of shortages, forced labor, unemployment and war damages, many citizens resorted to property crime. Those who were caught, were in majority sentenced within the Dutch judicial system, by Dutch magistrates, most of whom had no pro-German beliefs. This article explores how suspects, judges and probation officers referred to the occupation circumstances during the judicial process. All three types of actors saw how these circumstances could lead to theft. However, pre-existing notions of property and its defense were not radically questioned during the occupation. The (implicit) expectation was that the harmful consequences of the Second World War would be of a temporary nature.

Time-series satellite remote sensing reveals gradually increasing war damage in the Gaza Strip.

War-related urban destruction is a significant global concern, impacting national security, social stability, people's survival and economic development. The effects of urban geomorphology and complex geological contexts during conflicts, characterized by different levels of structural damage, are not yet fully understood globally. Here we report how integrating deep learning with data from the independently developed LuoJia3-01 satellite enables near real-time detection of explosions and assessment of different building damage levels in the Israel-Palestine conflict. We found that the damage continually increased from 17 October 2023 to 2 March 2024. We found 3747 missile craters with precision positions and sizes, and timing on vital infrastructure across five governorates in the Gaza Strip on 2 March 2024, providing accurate estimates of potential unexploded ordnance locations and assisting in demining and chemical decontamination. Our findings reveal a significant increase in damage to residential and educational structures, accounting for 58.4% of the total-15.4% destroyed, 18.7% severely damaged, 11.8% moderately damaged and 12.5% slightly damaged-which exacerbates the housing crisis and potential population displacement. Additionally, there is a 34.1% decline in the cultivated area of agricultural land, posing a risk to food security. The LuoJia3-01 satellite data are crucial for impartial conflict monitoring, and our innovative methodology offers a cost-effective, scalable approach to assess future conflicts in various global contexts. These first-time findings highlight the urgent need for an immediate ceasefire to prevent further damage and support the release of hostages and subsequent reconstruction efforts.

Risk management in the construction industry in Ukraine

The effective functioning and recovery of the construction industry in the face of economic instability and war is an essential task for Ukraine. The destruction of infrastructure, reduced demand for construction projects, and logistical difficulties pose complex challenges that require a comprehensive approach. The recovery of the construction industry contributes to the physical restoration of infrastructure and stimulates the countryʼs economic and social development. Attracting financial support from international partners is a crucial element of successful recovery. This article analyzes in detail the role and structure of the construction industry in Ukraine. After the destruction of infrastructure due to the war, the construction industry has become an essential catalyst for physical recovery and economic growth. To provide financial support for recovery efforts, the government has created several specialized funds to help rebuild the countryʼs economy and infrastructure. These investments are expected to contribute to job creation, increased production activity, and economic development. War damage assessments and recovery plans confirm the importance and potential of the construction industry for Ukraineʼs economic recovery. In particular, the plan of the national recovery program for construction and related services in Ukraine includes the modernization of logistics, housing, and infrastructure directing significant financial resources. This is expected to stimulate growth in the construction industry, providing new business opportunities and creating new jobs. However, there are also risks associated with political and physical insecurity, currency depreciation, supply chain disruptions, and labor shortages. To overcome these challenges, a comprehensive approach is needed, including risk management, stabilization of economic conditions, and support for infrastructure projects. In addition, close cooperation between various institutions is needed to effectively address these challenges and ensure the sustainable development of the construction industry in Ukraine.

State Capacity and Industrial Development: A Comparative Study of Iran and Egypt (1990–2010)

Despite pursuing industrial development to solve various socioeconomic and sociopolitical issues, such as the urgent need to reconstruct war damages in Iran, the foreign debt crisis in Egypt, and population growth in both countries, statistical data show only slight progress. The graphs of the gross domestic product (GDP) growth and exports of goods and services as a percentage of GDP, which are reliable indexes for measuring industrial output, along with the rate of foreign direct investment, demonstrate numerous fluctuations and instability in the economic growth rate for both cases under the period under review. Failing to diversify the economy, Iran and Egypt still relied heavily on unproductive rents, mostly from hydrocarbon exports, at the end of this era. Why is this the case despite the national leadership putting industrial development on the agenda? This article addresses this question by examining state capacity, focusing on the internal cohesion of state authority and its relation to society. In so doing, comparative historical analysis and causal narrative method are used.

THE IMPACT OF MILITARY ACTIONS ON UNIQUE NATURAL OBJECTS OF KHARKIV REGION

This article explores the impact of military actions on unique natural objects in the Kharkiv region. A comprehensive analysis of the consequences of armed conflicts on the natural environment and nature reserves of the region has been conducted. In particular, aspects such as loss of biodiversity, pollution of water resources, and damage to ecosystems are examined. The article also discusses possible measures for the restoration and preservation of natural objects after military events, aimed at restoring ecological balance and ensuring the stability of natural ecosystems in the region. Risk calculations for public health due to soil pollution after a forest fire in the "FELDMAN ECO-PARK" show that the risk corresponds to Class 4 for mobile forms and gross content of pollutants (significant impact, severe acute effects). The use of a methodological approach to assess potential health risks allows determining the level of danger of recreational activities in the eco-park, identifying priorities for the implementation of nature conservation measures. Conducting such research will help identify effective ways of restoring and preserving natural ecosystems in the area affected by Russian aggression, ensuring their sustainable functioning in the future. The restoration of the eco-park is not only about designing and building new enclosures and playgrounds. It is also about restoring the ecosystem, a unique nature reserve for preserving biodiversity and rare species of animals and plants. According to various estimates, complete cleaning of forests and other areas from explosive remnants of war may take from one to several decades after the end of hostilities. Therefore, it is crucial for the international community to take responsibility for protecting nature and the environment during armed conflicts and contribute to its further development. The Protocol to the Geneva Conventions calls for protecting nature from war damage, representing a significant direction in international law recognized by many countries worldwide.

Pig production in Poland in the 20th century: History and future prospects.

The article is based on a comparative analysis of statistical data on the size and structure of pig herds in Poland in the period of 1930-1989. It focuses on the economic situation and agricultural policies after World War I and World War II and the problems due to war damage and the communist economic system imposed by the Soviet Union. Polish pig breeding was successful in the postwar periods in terms of the development of breeding material for noble pig breeds: Polish Large White, Polish Landrace, Złotnicka White, Złotnicka spotted, and Puławska. This article shows the long-term prospects of pig breeding trends in Poland and their implications for present pig production. It also shows that Poland has unique opportunities and conditions for rebuilding and development of pig herds and can compete on the global market.

Research on Network Public Opinion in War Damage Incident of Major Water Conservancy Projects

Research on Network Public Opinion in War Damage Incident of Major Water Conservancy Projects

Can Ukrainians Claim Compensation for War Damage under the Russia-Ukraine BIT? An International Investment Law Experiment

Can Ukrainians Claim Compensation for War Damage under the Russia-Ukraine BIT? An International Investment Law Experiment

The role of the Polish Army in the military settlement action in the years 1945–1948

The article discusses the issue of military settlement on the so-called Recovered Territories in the years 1945–1948. The text examines the role of the army and military institutions in this process, the status of military settlers and the system of mutual links between military and civilian institutions dealing with military settlement. The article presents the overall organizational effort related to military settlement, difficulties accompanying settlers, problems of cooperation between military institutions and civil administration and the scale of military settlement against the background of the nationwide settlement action. The action of military settlement took place in extremely difficult conditions (e.g. migration and resettlement of the Polish and German population, or war damage). Despite this, between 1945 and 1948, about 534,000 people with the status of military settlers (including demobilized soldiers, as well as members of their families and families of fallen soldiers) settled in the so-called Recovered Territories. Of these, fewer than 180,000 people settled in the districts designated in June 1945 only for military settlements, while the vast majority (354,000) lived outside these districts. Nevertheless, the settlement of 180,000 people in border powiats can be considered a great success in the process of their development, conducive to better protection of the new Polish-German border. Military settlers played an important role in the process of settling the so-called Recovered Territories, because they constituted almost 12% of all settlers. Due to the extensiveness of the issue concerning the broadly understood Polish settlement in these lands in the first post-war years, the subject matter discussed in the article was limited to selected issues of military settlement, which were discussed on the basis of archival materials and Polish historiography related to the topic of this type of settlement.

Modernizacja gospodarcza i społeczna II Rzeczypospolitej

The aim of the article is to present, based on the results of the latest research, the basic phenomena in the field of economic and social modernization taking place in Poland in the interwar period. An introduction to the analysis is the opening balance, which discusses the conditions present in Poland in 1918. The following sections present the processes of economic and social modernization taking place in it. Within the framework of economic modernization, the basic limitations were the negative impact of the legacy of the partitions, war damage and the Great Depression. The currency reform of Władysław Grabski, the period of prosperity in the second half of the 1920s, and the modernization policy of Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski in the second half of the 1930s were favorable phenomena. In the case of social modernization, the state played an important role, introducing important institutional solutions from the very beginning, including equality of citizens before the law, compulsory schooling, women's suffrage. A special role was played by the social policy of the state, thanks to which hundreds of thousands of citizens entered modernity, who could take advantage of social security, modern labor legislation, employment policy, and health care. At the same time, there were visible processes of disseminating the achievements of modernity, including mass and popular culture. The conclusions of the analysis indicate that, despite many examples, modernization in interwar Poland had an island character. The processes related to it have only just begun, and the implementation of many projects undertaken in the second half of the 1930s, such as the construction of the Central Industrial District or the public health service, was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II.

Plakat w służbie medycyny. Zdrowie publiczne jako temat plakatów z kolekcji Muzeum Górnośląskiego w Bytomiu (lata 50.–80. XX wieku)

Poster in the service of medicine. Public health as a subject of posters from the collection of the Upper Silesian Museum in Bytom (1950s–1980s) The poster is a combination of graphic elements and a text layer that is informative. Its development in the 1940s was influenced by the socio-political situation of the country, which was rebuilding itself from war damage. In the following decades, it was a narrative in line with the ideological foundations of the Eastern Bloc countries. Over time, the poster became a tool of conscious propaganda by the authorities. Social posters, including those dealing with multifaceted issues of public health, broke away from the monotonous narrative. In the collection of the History Department of the Upper Silesian Museum in Bytom, there are over 5.5 thousand posters of various content and caesura. A small part of them, 80 objects, analyzed in this study, concern activities in the field of prevention and health promotion, documenting the activities of the Polish Red Cross or compliance with safety regulations in the work environment and everyday life. Many of them were prepared by artists associated with the Polish Poster School, cooperating with Polskie Zakłady Graficzne, Wydawnictwo Artystyczno-Graficzne, Instytut Wydawniczy Centralnej Rady Związków Zawodowych and Wydawnictwo Państwowego Zakładu Higieny. Posters were placed in visible places, e.g. in hospitals, clinics, offices or mass media. Their task was to educate the society and develop proper habits in everyday life.

War damages compensation: a case study on Ukraine.

Russia's illegal, brazen and cynical full-scale invasion of Ukraine began on February 24th, 2022, and is still ongoing at the time of this research (July 2023). The damages incurred by Ukraine and its citizens during the years of occupation of the territories and the war are calculated in millions, although it is difficult to definitively determine both the methodology and specific numbers. To restore justice, it seems much more important to define a fair, transparent, and understandable procedure for compensating the losses suffered by citizens and businesses as a result of these events. This is especially important in the context of the need to implement the goals of sustainable development, in particular, ensuring equal access to justice for all. The article is devoted to these and related issues. To determine the procedure for compensating losses and damages caused by the war, we first determined what exactly can be compensated and who can apply for compensation. These and other factors determine the peculiarities of the procedure for the restoration of rights and compensation for damage caused by the war in Ukraine. In searching for an answer to the researched question, we analyzed the current legislation of Ukraine and draft laws proposed to regulate relations related to compensation for damages. We also conducted a comprehensive analysis of concepts such as losses, damages, compensation, reparations, and reimbursement as defined in national legislation and international treaties. The generalization of the case law of national courts (more than 200 analyzed decisions of the courts of the first and appeal and cassation instances for the period from February 20, 2014 to March 1, 2023, examples of which are presented in the study) indicates the presence of various approaches of compensation for damage, in understanding how to restore the violated rights of citizens.

Meaning beyond Accuracy: War Damage Map of Cottbus

(War) destruction of a city is not easily representable. Not only is the entirety of urban space hardly ever equally affected but also, within the damaged areas, there are different degrees of ruination. Along with photos and aerial photography, maps are one of the most common means of representing cities’ war destruction. Despite their appearance, however, they are not an objective and impartial representation, but rather a narrative that can be deconstructed and interpreted in various ways. This paper inquires to what extent the Cottbus war damage map is a reliable testimony of the urban disaster, what its limitations are, and what story it tells. For all its precision, it was not made to serve utilitarian purposes, but rather as a mean of commemoration. This draws our attention to the fact that maps should not be only measured by their accuracy, but rather recognized and assessed on their own terms.

Application of accounting for the assessment of war losses for agribusiness enterprises of Ukraine

Purpose. The military aggression of the russian federation against Ukraine led to the disruption of logistics processes and the destruction of the production capacity of the agribusiness. This study aims to describe an accounting toolkit to determine and evaluate the direct losses of agricultural enterprises due to the war.
 Methodology / approach. This study is based on the use of Ukrainian regulatory documents. The authors of this study applied synthesis methods when summarizing information on estimates of war damage. They used analytical methods in monitoring the world and national experience of such assessment. The cost method was used during the approbation. It provided for the use of the estimate program “Building technologies: Estimate 8”. Determining the volumes of repair and construction works was carried out in accordance with the State Construction Standards and Resource Elemental Estimate Standards of Ukraine. In addition, modelling, analogy and comparison methods were also used.
 Results. In this study, the authors proposed a simple algorithm of actions, which allows for detecting direct damage by enterprises in a short time. The algorithm is based on the use of five accounting methods: (1) Inventory method, (2) Documentation method, (3) Evaluation method, (4) Accounts and balance method, (5) Reporting method. The specifics of the application of each method are described in detail, taking into account the requirements of accounting legislation for the recognition and assessment, and inventory of assets of agribusiness enterprises. Experimental calculations (using the example of damage to real estate as a result of hostilities) allowed us to conclude that the damage calculated by the individual (object-by-object) approach (USD 63.88 billion) is 30 % higher than the quick estimate of the World Bank (USD 50.4 billion) and 20 % higher than expert estimates made in Ukraine (USD 50.4 billion).
 Originality / scientific novelty. According to the research results, a methodical algorithm to estimate direct war losses for Ukrainian agribusiness enterprises based on accounting methods has been proposed. Using accounting tools to evaluate the direct losses is essential for the following reason. Let’s suppose that the accounting system does not confirm the data on direct losses. In this case, misunderstandings may arise between the participants of socio-economic relations, who operate with general (forecasted) figures. At the same time, verified accounting data on direct losses can be evidence in court and are the basis for receiving compensation or financial assistance.
 Practical value / implications. The practical significance of the proposed methodical algorithm lies in the ability to systematically recognize and assess direct losses of agribusiness enterprises, taking into account the specifics of their assets, based on the accountant's professional judgment, without the involvement of outside experts.

Combining war damages accounting and accounting for the natural world with social-organisational repercussions

The authors propose a critical reinterpretation of a case study embedded in the historical period of post-WWII in Southern Italy. This period is characterised by relevant socio-political and economic consequences at a global scale, and it has been scarcely investigated from a business perspective. The authors consider the connections between war damages accounting, adverse collateral events, and agricultural accounting as tools to claim for social changes. The analysis specifically concerns the damages caused to the warehouses of hemp growers in the province of Caserta (Campania region, Italy). This area was known as Terra di Lavoro (‘land of work’ (authors’ translation)) since the Middle Ages to outline the poor conditions of hemp growers. The features of the accounting analysed herein, in the light of neo-institutional theory, show how it was used as a technology for problem-solving and a potential trigger for the agrarian reform of 1950.

Eastern Galicia in the Polish Economic System Between the Two World Wars

The article reviews the economic development of Eastern Galicia between the two World Wars. The organization and main branches of the economy are analyzed. The study method was based on the principles of historical science, logic, scientific objectivity in the evaluation of the past and a critical approach towards the available sources and historiography.
 As a result of the warfare in 1914–1921, Eastern Galicia suffered great destruction. After the war, it had to rebuild its economy and adapt to the needs of the new state. The region’s entrepreneurs almost lost contact with companies from other parts of the former Austria-Hungary: trade with the East decreased. The policy of the central government limited the economic opportunities of Eastern Galicia.
 The region’s economy was dominated by agriculture. For the majority of Ukrainian farmers who lacked land, a land reform was the most important issue. However, the unwillingness of the Polish authorities to solve the agrarian problems of Ukrainians led to conflicts. The only possible way for Galician farmers to use economic opportunities was through cooperation, which was successfully developing.
 However, Eastern Galicia was not only an agrarian region of the inter-war Poland. It was a hub for important branches of the country’s industry. Significant war damage and the instability of Polish finances until the mid-1920s hindered its development, though. Only in 1928 did the industry reach its prewar levels. A year later, the global economic crisis leveled the previous achievements.
 Before the war, the most important industries were dominated by entrepreneurs from Austria and Germany. After the revival of Poland, it was impossible to leave this state of affairs as it was. For example, in the oil industry, French capital replaced German and Austrian capital. The development of industry in eastern Galicia was also hampered by the lack of a clear state policy and the lack of a real organization of individual industries.

Centra, zázemí a periferie hospodářského života raně novověké společnosti v zemích České koruny. O smyslu hospodářských dějin raného novověku

The paper evaluates the representation of early modern economic history at the 12th congress of Czech historians in Ústí nad Labem in September 2022 and responds to opinions about the current decline of the discipline of economic history and its replacement by the “new” cultural history. It emphasises the continuing importance of classical economic history and the need to enrich it with new approaches, based on complexity, a comparative approach, and interdisciplinarity. Two historiographic probes demonstrating the meaning and significance of the study of territorial economic relations in the 16th and 17th centuries are presented. The first is a microhistorical insight into the management and function of the suburban estates of the Czech nobility in the immediate vicinity of the provincial capital, Prague, at the end of the 16th century, as can be observed through the example of the small manor of Košíř, owned in the years 1585–1597 by the lords of Hradec. The second probe shows the possibilities and benefits of analysing data from contemporary tax records and lists of serfdom duties and corvées for understanding the function and status of cities and towns in the South Bohemian domain of the lords of Hradec. It describes the structure of the urban network and the hierarchy of urban settlements in the 17th century, captures the original traces of war damage, and suggests the possibility of following the trends of early modern urbanisation in the territory of the former Bechyňsko region in a long wave from the end of the Thirty Years’ War to the beginning of industrialisation and the new “industrial” urbanisation in the 19th century.

From the archives: The 1950s

A major theme of C&EN’s business coverage in the 1950s was the redevelopment of the European chemical industry after World War II. Chemical plants, especially in Germany, were the targets of heavy bombardment, and they were desperately needed to help rebuild European economies in peacetime. One article from 1953 captures in meticulous detail a crucial event: the breakup of IG Farben. Major German chemical companies formed the IG Farben cartel in 1925, and by the time the war started, it comprised nearly 85% of the country’s chemical sector. Following Allied occupation, the cartel split up. The largest firm that spun off from IG Farben was Farbenfabriken Bayer, centered in Leverkusen. By 1953, about four-fifths of the war damage at Bayer’s facilities was “made good,” according to C&EN’s reporting. The second-largest IG Farben firm to become independent was Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik. The company, better known as BASF, is now the

ACCOUNTING AND ANALYTICAL SUPPORT OF THE WAR’S IMPACT ON THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ACHIEVEMENT EVALUATION

Introducing of organizational and methodological tools of accounting and analytical support developing for assessing the impact of war on achieving of the Sustainable Development Goals and working-out of practical recommendations on its use both at the national level and at the level of economic entities is the purpose of the article. The influence of Russian aggression on achieving of the Sustainable Development Goals both by Ukraine and the whole world is analyzed. The main challenges that Ukraine will face in the preparation of a Voluntary National Review during and after the war are identified, namely: the complexity of information collection, including monitoring, evaluation of Russian invasion negative economic effects on the world; the general availability of data, and specific difficulties of disaggregated and alternative data collection on evaluation the impact of Russo-Ukrainian war on Ukrainian and world’s economy; coordination of national strategies of resource mobilization for economic damage overcoming; challenges related to aligning institutions, institutional capacity formation, effective governance, decentralization, ensuring policy coherence etс. It is proven that accounting system produces a significant volume of information flows circulating in the globe. It was determined that a significant place in the process of accounting and analytical support formation at the corporate level is occupied by the development of metric systems and methods of evaluating financial and non-financial indicators, which allow evaluation of a company’s activities results as accurately and reliably as possible from point of view of various aspects. Accounting and analytical systems provide basis for Sustainable Development Goals indicators determining at national level. In order to form reliable accounting and analytical support for determining the impact of war on identified by UN 183 indicators of sustainable development it is proposed to adapt the methodology, which is based on the war economic destruction level simulator methodology, which is based on natural disasters vulnerability evaluation model and involves determination of a number of key indicators, such as: the war damage level rate; the armed attacks intensity rate, the war destruction magnitude rate, the inflation and unemployment levels in war ratio. In order to adapt the proposed methodology, it is recommended to calculate the rate of the war impact on the Sustainable Development Goals achievement over the past ten years, which corresponds to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the period during which Ukraine suffers from the Russian aggression. Implementing the proposed methodology of the war negative economic, social and ecological effects measuring could be used to create an informational basis for the most effective recovery of our country and will be of service for formation of an effective system of evaluation the impact of the war on the SDGs achievement at both national and global levels.