Virtual Reality Environment Research Articles

EEG Signal Classification Using Low Temporal Information in Virtual Reality Environments

Purpose: This research systematically compares the performance of K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Random Forest (RF), and Support Vector Machine (SVM) in recognizing emotional and cognitive states from EEG data in a virtual reality (VR) environment. It aims to identify the model with the highest accuracy for each participant. Methods: EEG data were collected from four channels (TP9, AF7, AF8, TP10) with a data range of 0.0 - 1682.815 µV and a sampling rate of 2 Hz. The sampling rate is shallow compared to the standard EEG datasets. Features extracted included statistical measures (mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis) and Hjorth parameters (activity, mobility, complexity), classifier (SVM, RF, KNN). Each classifier’s performance was evaluated using accuracy, indicating the proportion of correctly classified instances. Result: RF achieved the highest average accuracy but showed more significant variability. SVM demonstrated a high median accuracy with consistent performance, as indicated by a narrow interquartile range (IQR) and few outliers. KNN exhibited the lowest median accuracy and highest variability, suggesting sensitivity to data characteristics and parameters. These findings highlight RF’s potential for consistent performance with careful tuning and SVM’s reliability. Novelty: The research’s novelty lies in its personalized performance analysis, evaluating each model’s accuracy individually for participants. This tailored approach reveals the best-performing model for each person, emphasizing customized machine-learning applications in VR-EEG systems. The study’s detailed, participant-specific evaluation enhances emotion and cognitive state recognition precision, advancing individualized VR therapeutic interventions and cognitive research methodologies.

Enhancing students' learning outcomes in self‐regulated virtual reality learning environment with learning aid mechanisms

AbstractVirtual Reality (VR) has demonstrated significant advantages in various educational fields as it allows learners to actively learn in high interactivity and realism under their learning pace. However, for low‐achieving students, VR learning environments may introduce some challenges, which are problems encountered during their learning process, which lead to difficulties in self‐regulating their learning progress and becoming disoriented in the lack of guidance. This study aims to explore the improvement of self‐regulated VR learning environment based on the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning and enhance the performance of low‐achieving students. We designed a VR course on electronic circuit hardware and programming, providing participants with a series of learning aids in the VR learning environment, including feedback, hints and guidance. Feedback aids provide correct or incorrect feedback after each task or test, guidance aids display progress following each task or test and hint aids offer guidance when inactivity is detected. A quasi‐experiment was conducted by using questionnaires and practical tasks to assess the participants' cognitive levels, practical hands‐on skills, self‐regulated learning abilities and learning engagement after VR learning. The results demonstrated significant improvements in all learning indicators for low‐achieving students. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Virtual Reality (VR) presents itself as a promising tool for self‐regulated learning (SRL). SRL abilities are of paramount importance within the learning environment of VR. In the context of the self‐regulated Virtual Reality (SRVR) learning environment, low‐achieving students have received little attention. What this paper adds It examines the effectiveness of learning aid mechanisms within the SRVR learning environment. These mechanisms support cognitive levels and increase engagement in SRVR learning. Low‐achieving learners benefit from the presence of learning aid mechanisms in the SRVR learning environment. Implications for practice and/or policy Providing learning aid mechanisms within the SRVR learning environment can potentially augment learning. Learning aids mechanism have the potential to provide comprehensive support within the SRVR setting.

RGB Color Model: Effect of Color Change on a User in a VR Art Gallery Using Polygraph.

This paper presents computer and color vision research focusing on human color perception in VR environments. A VR art gallery with digital twins of original artworks is created for this experiment. In this research, the field of colorimetry and the application of the L*a*b* and RGB color models are applied. The inter-relationships of the two color models are applied to create a color modification of the VR art gallery environment using C# Script procedures. This color-edited VR environment works with a smooth change in color tone in a given time interval. At the same time, a sudden change in the color of the RGB environment is defined in this interval. This experiment aims to record a user's reaction embedded in a VR environment and the effect of color changes on human perception in a VR environment. This research uses lie detector sensors that record the physiological changes of the user embedded in VR. Five sensors are used to record the signal. An experiment on the influence of the user's color perception in a VR environment using lie detector sensors has never been conducted. This research defines the basic methodology for analyzing and evaluating the recorded signals from the lie detector. The presented text thus provides a basis for further research in the field of colors and human color vision in a VR environment and lays an objective basis for use in many scientific and commercial areas.

An exploration of low- and high-immersive virtual reality modalities for willingness to communicate in English as a second language

This mixed-method quasi-experimental study compares the impact of two different kinds of virtual reality environments on the willingness of English as a Second Language (ESL) students to engage in communication. Twenty high-level ESL graduate students were recruited for the research and organized into 10 pairs. Each pair of students completed two separate speaking tasks. One task took place in a low-immersive virtual reality environment, while the other task took place in a high-immersive virtual reality environment. The study was counterbalanced, with half completing the two tasks in one order, while the other half completed them in the reverse order. The study found no statistically significant differences between the modality conditions on willingness to communicate. Task order and action-oriented instructional methods were found to have greater impact than the modality. However, a significant difference was found between participants' affective-cognitive experiences, with participants reporting higher cognitive load and greater enjoyment in high-immersive condition. Speaking anxiety was also reduced after participation in two virtual reality tasks, leading to an increase in self-confidence. Additionally, qualitative analysis identified relationships between various technological, affective-cognitive, and individual factors that can affect the student's willingness to communicate. Empirical and theoretical implications are discussed, along with limitations and directions for future research.

Designing for Networked Learning in 360VR - A scenographic turn in online learning environments?

Despite the growing popularity of Virtual Reality (VR) in Higher Education (HE), there is a lack of studies dealing with networked and collaborative activities in VR (Radianti et al., 2020). Historically, VR has been promoted as an educational technology that can give access to exotic places or dangerous situations through computer-generated virtual worlds. Another area of application of VR has been therapeutical sessions exposing individuals to unknown situations. Concepts like interactivity, immersion and presence has been shaping the discourse of educational VR (Markowitz & Bailenson, 2019), but that is not necessarily supporting a networked or collaborative learning approach. Recently, 360-degree video cameras has made it possible to record situated practices, which can then be used as the canvas in the virtual world (McIlvenny & Davidsen, 2017). Pirker et al. (2021) argued that 360VR could potentially be a game-changer for distant education, but it is also clear that 360VR pose a new medium for supporting Networked Learning. Basically, 360VR presents a transition from logocentric platforms (e.g. Moodle) emphasising the exchange of text between peers towards platforms that build upon ideas of immersion, inhabitation and multimodality. The aim of the workshop is to discuss how principles of Networked Learning can inform the design of 360VR activities in HE. CAVA360VR is a prototype Unity-based Windows application supporting 20 simultaneous participants to collaboratively analyse, visualise and annotate 360° video in VR. CAVA360VR is developed by the BigSoftVideo team (www.bigvideo.aau.dk) in Aalborg University (McIlvenny, 2020). In CAVA360VR, remote participants can share, view and interact with a 360° video together, draw on the 360° video, use a ‘mirror-cam’ to see what is behind you, use a laser pointer to guide others’ attention, import a 2D image, view a transcript, and view a synced 2D video with the 360° video. Further, participants can talk to each other, and the audio is spatialized in the VR environment. In CAVA360VR, each participant is represented with an avatar that follows the orientation of the Head Mounted Display (HMD) of the individual participant and the controllers are showed as pair of avatar hands. The potential of CAVA360VR is also particularly interesting in the context of Networked Learning as it offers a new platform for designing for learning. CAVA360VR is not only available in VR, but can also run as a standard desktop application, which allows a larger, mixed group to participate in the analysis of the recorded data. Not all of the features available in VR are available in non-VR mode. For two years, CAVA360VR has been used in many video data sessions (Jordan & Henderson, 1995; McIlvenny, 2020) with participants – for example, from Ghana, Finland and Denmark – analysing 360° video data together. The potential of CAVA360VR is also particularly interesting in the context of Networked Learning as it offers a new platform for designing for learning. This includes addressing how to collect 360 video data, how to pedagogically design activities, and how to support students negotiating of meaning in 360VR, etc.

Investigating the Factors Influencing User Loyalty, Purchase Intention, and Word-of-Mouth in Virtual Reality

Abstract This study investigates the determinants of loyalty, purchase intention, and word-of-mouth (WOM) recommendations in the context of virtual reality (VR) technology, focusing on sensory design components such as visual (color, navigation design, aesthetics, shape, and product design), tactile (touch), and auditory (audio) elements. Employing partial least squares structural equation modeling, data from individuals experienced with VR headsets were analyzed to explore how these sensory aspects influence user behavior. Contrary to expectations, color did not significantly influence attitude or satisfaction. Navigation design significantly impacted both user attitude and satisfaction, highlighting its importance in the VR experience. While aesthetics were found to positively affect user attitude, they did not significantly influence satisfaction. Interestingly, the shape of VR devices influenced satisfaction but not attitude. The product design of VR devices significantly affected both attitude and satisfaction, but audio factors did not significantly impact either. The results indicate that user attitude significantly influences loyalty, purchase intention, and WOM, as does user satisfaction. This reveals the critical role of design and sensory elements in shaping user experiences and preferences within VR environments, offering insights for developers and marketers aiming to enhance user engagement and loyalty.

Evaluation of high-fidelity and virtual reality simulation platforms for assessing fourth-year medical students’ encounters with patients in need of urgent or emergent care

Background Medical students in the U.S. must demonstrate urgent and emergent care competence before graduation. Urgent and emergent care competence involves recognizing, evaluating and initiating management of an unstable patient. High-fidelity (HF) simulation can improve urgent and emergent care skills, but because it is resource intense, alternative methods are needed. Study Objective Our primary purpose was to use program evaluations to compare medical student experiences with HF and virtual reality (VR) simulations as assessment platforms for urgent and emergent care skills. Methods During their emergency medicine clerkship, students at The Ohio State University College of Medicine must demonstrate on HF manikins, competence in recognizing and initiating care of a patient requiring urgent or emergent care. Students evaluated these simulations on a five-point quality scale and answered open-ended questions about simulation strengths and weaknesses. Faculty provided feedback on student competence in delivering urgent or emergent care. In 2022, we introduced VR as an alternative assessment platform. We used Wilcoxon Signed Ranks and Boxplots to compare ratings of HF to VR and McNemar Test to compare competence ratings. Comments were analyzed with summative content analysis or thematic coding. Results We received at least one evaluation survey from 160 of 216 (74.1%) emergency medicine clerkship students. We were able to match 125 of 216 (57.9%) evaluation surveys for students who completed both. Average ratings of HF simulations were 4.6 of 5, while ratings of VR simulations were slightly lower at 4.4. Comments suggested that feedback from both simulation platforms was valued. Students described VR as novel, immersive, and good preparation for clinical practice. Constructive criticism identified the need for additional practice in the VR environment. Student performance between platforms was significantly different with 91.7% of students achieving competence in HF, but only 65.5% in VR (p≤.001, odds-ratio = 5.75). Conclusion VR simulation functions similarly to HF for formative assessment of urgent and emergent care competence. However, using VR simulation for summative assessment of urgent and emergent care competence must be considered with caution because students require considerable practice and acclimation to the virtual environment.

Quality of Experience That Matters in Gaming Graphics: How to Blend Image Processing and Virtual Reality

This paper investigates virtual reality (VR) technology which can increase the quality of experience (QoE) on the graphics quality within the gaming environment. The graphics quality affects the VR environment and user experience. To gather relevant data, we conduct a live user experience and compare games with high- and low-quality graphics. The qualitative feedback obtained through questionnaires prove the importance ofcontextualizing users’ experiences playing both games. Furthermore, our findings prove the crucial role of graphics quality in adopting user engagement and enjoyment during gaming sessions. Users consistently reported their feeling more connected when interacting with games and receiving high-quality graphics. If the graphics quality received is low, the user rating for a particular game is low. Further examination of VR technology reveals its potential to revolutionize graphics quality within game play.

Enhancing clinical law education through immersive virtual reality: A flow experience perspective

BackgroundThe existing literature lacks experimental studies that provide a genuine virtual reality experience, particularly within the context of the flow experience, as it relates to clinical legal education. AimsThis study investigates the impact of immersive Virtual Reality (VR) on clinical law education, with a particular focus on the flow experience. SampleEighty-three law students participated in case practices. MethodThe study adopted an experimental design that included a random post-test control group, two distinct VR environments, immersive VR and desktop VR, were employed to create authentic scenarios mirroring real-life legal cases, and differences between the groups were tested using One-Way Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). ResultsThe results revealed that immersive VR significantly enhances the flow experience of law students compared to desktop VR. Participants in the immersive VR group demonstrated higher levels of focused attention, telepresence, time distortion, and interaction, indicating a more profound immersion. Surprisingly, there was no significant difference in terms of enjoyment between the two groups, contradicting previous research in this area. ConclusionsThis study is pioneering in its approach, offering a unique contribution to the field of law education. It highlights the potential of immersive VR as a valuable tool for enhancing clinical legal education and creating more engaging learning experiences. Expanding the use of these virtual environments to both practical and theory-based learning methods presents an exciting avenue for further exploration in the field of legal education.

Virtual Reality Head-Mounted Display (HMD) and Preoperative Patient-Specific Simulation: Impact on Decision-Making in Pediatric Urology: Preliminary Data.

To assess how virtual reality (VR) patient-specific simulations can support decision-making processes and improve care in pediatric urology, ultimately improving patient outcomes. Children diagnosed with urological conditions necessitating complex procedures were retrospectively reviewed and enrolled in the study. Patient-specific VR simulations were developed with medical imaging specialists and VR technology experts. Routine CT images were utilized to create a VR environment using advanced software platforms. The accuracy and fidelity of the VR simulations was validated through a multi-step process. This involved comparing the virtual anatomical models to the original medical imaging data and conducting feedback sessions with pediatric urology experts to assess VR simulations' realism and clinical relevance. A total of six pediatric patients were reviewed. The median age of the participants was 5.5 years (IQR: 3.5-8.5 years), with an equal distribution of males and females across both groups. A minimally invasive laparoscopic approach was performed for adrenal lesions (n = 3), Wilms' tumor (n = 1), bilateral nephroblastomatosis (n = 1), and abdominal trauma in complex vascular and renal malformation (ptotic and hypoplastic kidney) (n = 1). Key benefits included enhanced visualization of the segmental arteries and the deep vascularization of the kidney and adrenal glands in all cases. The high depth perception and precision in the orientation of the arteries and veins to the parenchyma changed the intraoperative decision-making process in five patients. Preoperative VR patient-specific simulation did not offer accuracy in studying the pelvic and calyceal anatomy. VR patient-specific simulations represent an empowering tool in pediatric urology. By leveraging the immersive capabilities of VR technology, preoperative planning and intraoperative navigation can greatly impact surgical decision-making. As we continue to advance in medical simulation, VR holds promise in educational programs to include even surgical treatment of more complex urogenital malformations.

Dental students' perceptions of the use of two-dimensional and three-dimensional vision in dental education using a three-dimensional haptic simulator: A qualitative study.

To assess the perceptions of novice and experienced undergraduate dental students of virtual learning with two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) vision. This qualitative study involved 21 students from the second and fourth years of a 5-year BDS program. They first performed three operative tasks in virtual reality (VR) training sessions using both 2D and 3D vision. Subsequently, they participated in one of four online focus group discussions (FGDs). The FGDs were recorded and transcribed, and the data obtained from the transcriptions were coded and thematically analyzed. Three main themes emerged from the focus groups. With regard to their perceptions of 2D and 3D vision, most of the participants preferred 3D over 2D vision, mainly due to an improved ability to perceive depth. With regard to the theme of practicing 3D vision in the VR environment, some participants performed their tasks faster with 3D vision than with 2D vision, while others did not perceive any difference between them. Under the same main theme, some participants experienced headaches and eye fatigue with 3D vision. With regard to their perception of technical aspects, with 3D glasses, the participants experienced unpleasant sensations and saw darker images. All the participants placed greater value on practicing with 3D than with 2D vision in the VR environment. They believed that VR training should be used in the early years of dental education as an adjunct to the phantom head as it helps students acquire the skills needed by dental professionals.

Characterizing the Sensing Response of Carbon Nanocomposite-Based Wearable Sensors on Elbow Joint Using an End Point Robot and Virtual Reality.

Physical therapy is often essential for complete recovery after injury. However, a significant population of patients fail to adhere to prescribed exercise regimens. Lack of motivation and inconsistent in-person visits to physical therapy are major contributing factors to suboptimal exercise adherence, slowing the recovery process. With the advancement of virtual reality (VR), researchers have developed remote virtual rehabilitation systems with sensors such as inertial measurement units. A functional garment with an integrated wearable sensor can also be used for real-time sensory feedback in VR-based therapeutic exercise and offers affordable remote rehabilitation to patients. Sensors integrated into wearable garments offer the potential for a quantitative range of motion measurements during VR rehabilitation. In this research, we developed and validated a carbon nanocomposite-coated knit fabric-based sensor worn on a compression sleeve that can be integrated with upper-extremity virtual rehabilitation systems. The sensor was created by coating a commercially available weft knitted fabric consisting of polyester, nylon, and elastane fibers. A thin carbon nanotube composite coating applied to the fibers makes the fabric electrically conductive and functions as a piezoresistive sensor. The nanocomposite sensor, which is soft to the touch and breathable, demonstrated high sensitivity to stretching deformations, with an average gauge factor of ~35 in the warp direction of the fabric sensor. Multiple tests are performed with a Kinarm end point robot to validate the sensor for repeatable response with a change in elbow joint angle. A task was also created in a VR environment and replicated by the Kinarm. The wearable sensor can measure the change in elbow angle with more than 90% accuracy while performing these tasks, and the sensor shows a proportional resistance change with varying joint angles while performing different exercises. The potential use of wearable sensors in at-home virtual therapy/exercise was demonstrated using a Meta Quest 2 VR system with a virtual exercise program to show the potential for at-home measurements.

Simulation of interaction E-learning mode in political courses based on virtual reality and digital entertainment environment

E-learning is a social network learning method that greatly promotes the dissemination of knowledge. Students can use mobile network terminals for video learning and also share their learning materials, making the learning process interactive and entertaining. This article is based on virtual reality technology and studies the effectiveness of the interactive E-learning mode for political courses in the digital entertainment environment. This online teaching method benefits students and teachers a lot with its unique advantages, and is unanimously favored by experts and scholars. These courses not only provide students with a comprehensive understanding of Marxism, but also help them develop a correct world outlook, values, and ethics. Meanwhile, in the current digital technology environment, interactive online learning has the characteristics of virtualization and entertainment. Students can comment on social hot topics and share their favorite content through various media platforms. The results indicate that the application of artificial intelligence and virtual reality technology in the interactive e-learning mode of political networks has important advantages.

Influence of virtual reality and task complexity on digital health metrics assessing upper limb function

BackgroundTechnology-based assessments using 2D virtual reality (VR) environments and goal-directed instrumented tasks can deliver digital health metrics describing upper limb sensorimotor function that are expected to provide sensitive endpoints for clinical studies. Open questions remain about the influence of the VR environment and task complexity on such metrics and their clinimetric properties.MethodsWe aim to investigate the influence of VR and task complexity on the clinimetric properties of digital health metrics describing upper limb function. We relied on the Virtual Peg Insertion Test (VPIT), a haptic VR-based assessment with a virtual manipulation task. To evaluate the influence of VR and task complexity, we designed two novel tasks derived from the VPIT, the VPIT-2H (VR environment with reduced task complexity) and the PPIT (physical task with reduced task complexity). These were administered in an observational longitudinal study with 27 able-bodied participants and 31 participants with multiple sclerosis (pwMS, VPIT and PPIT only) and the value of kinematic and kinetic metrics, their clinimetric properties, and the usability of the assessment tasks were compared.ResultsIntra-participant variability strongly increased with increasing task complexity (coefficient of variation + 56%) and was higher in the VR compared to the physical environment (+ 27%). Surprisingly, this did not translate into significant differences in the metrics’ measurement error and test–retest reliability across task conditions (p > 0.05). Responsiveness to longitudinal changes in pwMS was even significantly higher (effect size + 0.35, p < 0.05) for the VR task with high task complexity compared to the physical instrumented task with low task complexity. Increased inter-participant variability might have compensated for the increased intra-participant variability to maintain good clinimetric properties. No significant influence of task condition on concurrent validity was present in pwMS. Lastly, pwMS rated the PPIT with higher usability than the VPIT (System Usability Scale + 7.5, p < 0.05).ConclusionThe metrics of both the VR haptic- and physical task-based instrumented assessments showed adequate clinimetric properties. The VR haptic-based assessment may be superior when longitudinally assessing pwMS due to its increased responsiveness. The physical instrumented task may be advantageous for regular clinical use due to its higher usability. These findings highlight that both assessments should be further validated for their ideal use-cases.

Comparative Analysis of SAAS Model and NPC Integration for Enhancing VR Shopping Experiences

This article examines the incorporation of the Shopping Assistance Automatic Suggestion (SAAS) model into Virtual Reality (VR) environments in order to improve the online shopping experience. The SAAS model employs sophisticated deep learning methods to offer customized product recommendations, which are conveyed by non-player characters (NPCs) via voice-based interactions. Our goal is to develop an interactive shopping experience that replicates real-life interactions by integrating AI-powered recommendations with immersive VR technology. We gather and standardize data from several open commerce databases, such as Amazon Product and Customer Reviews. The SAAS model, in conjunction with GPT-3, BERT, and T5, undergoes training and testing to evaluate its effectiveness across multiple criteria. The results demonstrate that the SAAS model surpasses other models in delivering contextually aware and pertinent recommendations. The integration process outlines the specific steps involved in capturing, processing, and transforming user interactions in virtual reality (VR) into vocal suggestions provided by non-player characters (NPCs). This strategy improves customization and utilizes the immersive features of virtual reality to effectively engage people. The results of our research establish a higher standard for e-commerce, with the goal of enhancing the user experience of online purchasing by making it more instinctive, engaging, and pleasurable.

Distinct catecholaminergic pathways projecting to hippocampal CA1 transmit contrasting signals during navigation in familiar and novel environments.

Neuromodulatory inputs to the hippocampus play pivotal roles in modulating synaptic plasticity, shaping neuronal activity, and influencing learning and memory. Recently it has been shown that the main sources of catecholamines to the hippocampus, ventral tegmental area (VTA) and locus coeruleus (LC), may have overlapping release of neurotransmitters and effects on the hippocampus. Therefore, to dissect the impacts of both VTA and LC circuits on hippocampal function, a thorough examination of how these pathways might differentially operate during behavior and learning is necessary. We therefore utilized 2-photon microscopy to functionally image the activity of VTA and LC axons within the CA1 region of the dorsal hippocampus in head-fixed male mice navigating linear paths within virtual reality (VR) environments. We found that within familiar environments some VTA axons and the vast majority of LC axons showed a correlation with the animals' running speed. However, as mice approached previously learned rewarded locations, a large majority of VTA axons exhibited a gradual ramping-up of activity, peaking at the reward location. In contrast, LC axons displayed a pre-movement signal predictive of the animal's transition from immobility to movement. Interestingly, a marked divergence emerged following a switch from the familiar to novel VR environments. Many LC axons showed large increases in activity that remained elevated for over a minute, while the previously observed VTA axon ramping-to-reward dynamics disappeared during the same period. In conclusion, these findings highlight distinct roles of VTA and LC catecholaminergic inputs in the dorsal CA1 hippocampal region. These inputs encode unique information, with reward information in VTA inputs and novelty and kinematic information in LC inputs, likely contributing to differential modulation of hippocampal activity during behavior and learning.

Affective Computing in Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, and Immersive Learning Environments

As students’ affective states can differ between learning that occurs in traditional classrooms when compared with learning that takes place in extended reality and immersive learning environments, it is important to examine the role of affective computing. Therefore, this study aims to provide an overview regarding the use of affective computing in the context of augmented reality, virtual reality, and immersive learning environments and the metaverse. Hence, it examines and presents the state of the art through a review and bibliometric analysis of 188 documents of the existing literature from Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) from 2005 to 2023. The study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement to identify and select relevant to the topic documents. In addition to the analysis of the existing literature, emerging topics and themes are identified and future research directions are presented. The significant role of affective computing within augmented reality and virtual reality environments arose. Their ability to offer engaging and interactive learning experiences while also being able to recognize, monitor, and respond to students’ affective states and to consider their emotions, personalities, characteristics, knowledge, and preferences to provide adaptive and personalized learning was evident. Additionally, their potential to enrich educational activities, increase learning outcomes, and support special education emerged. When augmented reality, virtual reality, and immersive learning environments capitalize on affective computing, meaningful learning can occur and self-regulated learning can be promoted.

Tooth Anatomy Inspector: A comprehensive assessment of an extended reality (XR) application designed for teaching and learning of root canal anatomy by students.

To develop and evaluate a suitable software application for mobile devices designed for teaching root canal anatomy to undergraduate students in an informative and engaging manner. Extracted human teeth were scanned by μCT and digitized by converting into STL files. An extended reality (XR) application illustrating the root canal anatomy of the scanned teeth was developed. Prior to deployment, undergraduate dental students were voluntarily asked about their expectations regarding an educational application on tooth anatomy. After a testing phase of the application on a mobile device and within a virtual reality environment, a subsequent evaluation was conducted to assess their overall experience in relation to their initial expectations. Data were analysed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and Mann-Whitney U test. The level of significance was set to .05 (p = .05). The application was able to meet the expectations of the students in all categories (p < .466-.731). Furthermore, it was evaluated as user-friendly (98.2%) and highly motivating for the purpose of learning more on root canal anatomy (100%). Given the overwhelmingly positive reception from undergraduate dental students, the application emerges to be a promising supplementary teaching method for the endodontic curriculum.

Immersive and Interactive 3D Visualization of Large-Scale Geoscientific Data

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) technology has great potential in supporting planetary scientists and the field of geosciences by offering immersive and interactive experiences for data exploration and analysis. This paper shows the opportunities presented by the use of VR technology in the geosciences domain while also identifying the open challenges associated with this integration. Our focus is on highlighting the several benefits that VR brings, including stereo vision, head tracking, and collaborative capabilities. These features can foster knowledge exchange and interdisciplinary research. Nevertheless, the adoption of VR presents certain challenges that need to be addressed. These include maintaining high refresh rates, handling large heterogeneous datasets, and striking a balance between visualization fidelity and performance. Fortunately, significant advancements have been made in high-performance data analysis, progressive data streaming, and real-time visualization, enabling interactive exploration of large-scale datasets within VR environments. To support a broader adoption among domain experts, we propose a visualization approach that scales both with display and with data size. As such, the system can be used to interactively explore large-scale datasets in immersive environments like CAVEs or powerwalls, on HMDs, or on traditional desktop setups. This approach allows for seamless transitions between desktop and VR experiences, leveraging immersive environments for collaboration and outreach activities. In this paper, we present an architectural framework, hardware environments, use cases, lessons learned, and the future potential of VR in this field. Through this scalable system, we anticipate transformative advancements in scientific exploration, collaboration, and knowledge dissemination.

The speed and phase of locomotion dictate saccade probability and simultaneous low-frequency power spectra.

Every day we make thousands of saccades and take thousands of steps as we explore our environment. Despite their common co-occurrence in a typical active state, we know little about the coordination between eye movements, walking behaviour and related changes in cortical activity. Technical limitations have been a major impediment, which we overcome here by leveraging the advantages of an immersive wireless virtual reality (VR) environment with three-dimensional (3D) position tracking, together with simultaneous recording of eye movements and mobile electroencephalography (EEG). Using this approach with participants engaged in unencumbered walking along a clear, level path, we find that the likelihood of eye movements at both slow and natural walking speeds entrains to the rhythm of footfall, peaking after the heel-strike of each step. Compared to previous research, this entrainment was captured in a task that did not require visually guided stepping - suggesting a persistent interaction between locomotor and visuomotor functions. Simultaneous EEG recordings reveal a concomitant modulation entrained to heel-strike, with increases and decreases in oscillatory power for a broad range of frequencies. The peak of these effects occurred in the theta and alpha range for slow and natural walking speeds, respectively. Together, our data show that the phase of the step-cycle influences other behaviours such as eye movements, and produces related modulations of simultaneous EEG following the same rhythmic pattern. These results reveal gait as an important factor to be considered when interpreting saccadic and time-frequency EEG data in active observers, and demonstrate that saccadic entrainment to gait may persist throughout everyday activities.