Voyage Of Discovery Research Articles

PIPERNO, D. R. 2006. Phytoliths. A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. ix + 238 pp. Lanham, New York, Toronto, Oxford: AltaMira Press (Rowman & Littlefield). Price £39.00 (paperback). ISBN 0 7591 0385 2

In 1833, in the course of his epic voyage of discovery on HMS Beagle , Charles Darwin found himself moored off Cape Verde in the Atlantic Ocean. One day, he noticed the persistent fall of a fine dust, and observed how it scratched some of the astronomical instruments. He collected material for analysis and mailed samples to his German colleague, C. G. Ehrenberg. And so was made the first discovery of phytoliths – microscopic, sculptured bodies of opaline silica that develop within the cells of a wide variety of plants. These biogenic deposits are …

A message from Dr Wilbert J Keon

It is my great pleasure to send best wishes to my colleagues, friends and former students during the 60th anniversary celebrations of the Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS). Over the past few decades, we have evolved from what was, in essence, an academic club for cardiologists, cardiac surgeons and other related specialists to what is a very active, influential, scientific society today. Our initial mandate was to simply bring scientists together – to serve as a forum for national meetings and the exchange of ideas in an era when ready access via electronic means could scarcely have been imagined. As the CCS matured, however, our meetings attracted far wider attention as we explored and debated the groundbreaking research performed by our colleagues across Canada. These gatherings continue to provide a vital and ongoing status report on the state-of-the-art in cardiovascular science at any given time. The CCS has actively engaged other cardiovascular resources in Canada and around the world so that cooperative clinical trials of basic scientific discoveries are being promoted to benefit Canadians. The Society is also keenly aware of its responsibility to help educate the next generation of bright minds and home-grown pioneers. There are superb educational programs that stem from each annual conference. These encourage the interface of young people in cardiovascular medicine and science with the elders of the Society. I call this vital relationship between youth and experience ‘the interchange between energy and wisdom’. When I was President of the Society in the late 1980s, Canada was witnessing an explosion in the evolution and application of angioplasty procedures, and we began to profit to a greater degree than ever from the wider use of new technologies. This applied especially to ‘assist devices’, with which I was extensively involved in my own work. The nation as a whole was beginning to share the medical profession’s long-standing concern that heart failure was a major health problem in Canada. Despite ‘ParticipACTION’ and more public awareness of the need for better nutrition, cardiovascular disease still remains a huge problem. Although we have been able to palliate many other conditions, such as valve failure and coronary artery disease, patients are living longer and entering an extended phase whereby the assist pump can no longer sustain the required pace – and fails. Assist pumps simply have not evolved as quickly as we, in our profession, have been hoping they would, but I am convinced that more encouraging results are just around the corner. Although the CCS maintains its primary focus on the actual science of cardiac medicine, we acknowledge that our work takes place in a wider social context, which explains our increasing involvement in the development of health policy. During the past 20 years, we have developed an excellent relationship with governments at all levels. We have made our scientific advice and clinical platforms sought after and respected. To give only one example, I am confident that Canada’s Heart Health Strategy will make a tremendous contribution when completed, because it allows everybody in the system from government on down to participate. What I want this strategy to accomplish over the next decade is the establishment of a level of control over more variables in cardiovascular disease that cause death and disability, thus making a healthy and comfortable life more predictable. I would also like to see a greater emphasis on the prevention through education, and the sooner the better. When I see 13-year-olds smoking at bus stops and in parks while telling themselves, “heart disease can’t affect me”, I wonder where we have failed as a society in getting the message across. This is just one of many themes I look forward to exploring with all of you at the 2007 annual conference in Quebec City, Quebec. Whether in plenary sessions or informal talks over dinner, we must examine ways in which to ensure our therapies cover three vital bases: they respect the fact that patients have feelings and families as well as afflictions, they are always rooted in sound theory, and they reflect the reality that all cardiac care professionals must remain on the leading edge of the voyage of discovery we call science. This October, we will have a lot to commemorate as we look over the past 60 years – and twice as much to aim for at our next milestone.

Alwyn Ruddock: ‘John Cabot and the Discovery of America’

Dr. Alwyn Ruddock was one of the best scholars to work on the North American discovery voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot (1496–1508). For thirty-five years scholars in this field awaited the groundbreaking volume Ruddock was said to be preparing on this subject. Yet, when Dr. Ruddock died in December 2005, aged eighty-nine, she ordered the destruction of all her research. This article examines the research claims she made in her 1992 book proposal to the University of Exeter Press and in her later correspondence with U.E.P. Her findings are so extraordinary that they will, if proved correct, transform our entire conception of the scale, nature and importance of John Cabot's achievements.

Sea People of the West

Two thousand years ago, or thereabouts, a double canoe sailed on a northeast tack (or maybe a southeast tack) from a Homeland (Hawaiki) among the islands of Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji. After a voyage of 7,000 kilometers, which bypassed the many as yet uninhabited islands of the central Pacific (such as Tahiti) and the stretch of the seventy atolls of the Tuamotu that spread umbrellalike across the eastern entry of the Pacific, the canoe landed on islands that the Spaniards in 1595 were to call “the Marquesas.” The descendants of these first settlers call their islands “Fenua'enata” (Land of the People). Here I tell the story of this first beach crossing after what I consider to be the most remarkable voyage of discovery and settlement in all of human history. These first settlers (shall we say a dozen adults?) brought the animals and food plants that would make their island inhabitable. More mysteriously, these voyagers were—in body, mind, and spirit—all that we have come to call “Polynesian” in the great triangle of Hawai'i, Aotearoa (New Zealand), and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). “Sea of Islands” is the name the descendants of this first voyage prefer to call that great triangle. I here celebrate a Sea People's mastery of their Sea of Islands.

Fixing God's Torah: The Accuracy of the Hebrew Bible Text in Jewish Law (review)

Reviewed by: Fixing God’s Torah: The Accuracy of the Hebrew Bible Text in Jewish Law Moshe Sokolow B. Barry Levy. Fixing God’s Torah: The Accuracy of the Hebrew Bible Text in Jewish Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Pp. xvii + 237. God's Torah is perfect, restoring the soul; God's testimony is steadfast, making wise the simple. Psalms 19.7 Therefore were the ancients called scribes [soferim], for they would enumerate all the letters in the Torah. bKiddushin 30a From the time writing was invented, scribes have made mistakes. Moshe Sokolow Frankly, I initially found the title of this book offputting. Insert Torah, accuracy, and Jewish law into the same sentence and it appears to be an Orthodox "no brainer." Combine Torah and fixing, however, and it presents itself, to an Orthodox reader, as an almost heretical oxymoron. Happily, reading Fixing God's Torah disabused me of my reservations. B. Barry Levy, professor of religious studies and dean of the faculty of religious studies at McGill University, conducts us on a voyage of discovery that chronicles the traditional veneration of the Torah text yet surprises us by illustrating the genuinely critical lengths to which various rabbinical authorities were prepared to go in order to preserve their perception of its accuracy. Wielding talmudic passages and rabbinical responsa with the erudition and rhetorical dexterity of a talmid hakham (old world scholar), he enables his readers—scholars and laymen alike—to come to terms with the overt evidence of textual anomalies without surrendering their faith in either the Torah or in its rabbinic interpreters. The "protagonist" of the book is Rabbi David [ben Solomon] Ibn Abi Zimra (Radbaz; Egypt, sixteenth century), prolific author of over 2,400 responsa, several of which—featured in the book—deal specifically with the validity of the textual transmission of the Torah. In one case, Radbaz discusses the propriety of changing a word in the Torah to conform to the spelling indicated by the Zohar. Another responsum comprises an [End Page e29] important statement on the origin and authority of the Masorah (the collective scribal wisdom pertaining to the consonantal text of the Jewish Bible, its vocalization and accentuation) and the extent to which it should be used to determine the correct spelling of biblical words. A third deals with the letter waw in the word shlwm, "peace," in Nm 25.12, and whether it was necessary to follow a talmudic teaching that required it to be interrupted (ketu'ah). A fourth responsum considers a medieval suggestion to change the traditional reading of hw', "it," in Lev 25.33, to hi'. Levy also examines the position of the outstanding Spanish sage Rabbi Solomon Ibn Adret (Rashba, d. 1310), whose own responsa served as a basis and precedent for Radbaz. He inquires, as well, into Radbaz's use of the Masoretic notes of Jacob ben Hayyim Ibn Adoniyah, who prepared the text for Daniel Bomberg's "Rabbinic Bible" (aka Mikra'ot gedolot). Finally, he concludes with a brief examination of the attempts that have been made since the sixteenth century to reconcile Torah texts with those of Talmud and midrash, with particular emphasis on the twenty-one discrepancies noted by Rabbi Akiva Eger (Poznan, nineteenth century) in his glosses to tractate Shabat. Talmudic and midrashic literature, ranging from explicit references to variant readings among scrolls that were kept in the Temple precincts to allusions implicit in text-based hermeneutics, already testifies to the absence of complete uniformity among extant Torah texts. Given that testimony, it is difficult to comprehend why the suggestion of textual variation (mostly of the least invasive variety, comprising plene and/or defective spellings) should raise the hackles of religious Jews. Even granting that the minute care that was exercised in copying the Torah worked to severely limit the possibility of scribal deviation, ever since writing was invented scribes have made mistakes. And yet, the importance of the accuracy of revealed Scripture—and the implications of its absence—is hardly unique to Orthodox Judaism or even to Judaism in general. Witness the following claim made on behalf of the Koran: No other book in the world can match the Qur'an . . . The astonishing...

Who will appraise the appraisers?—The paper, the instrument and the user

How confident can we be aboutthe reliability and robustness of the process ofcritical appraisal? The misconception persists thatcritical appraisal yields some universal truth—inshort, that the outcome is all (i.e. is this a good orbad paper?; how can I apply these results?). In factmany who encounter critical appraisal for the firsttime feel slightly cheated in that they expect todiscover answers—42, life, the universe and every-thing.

Miguel de Unamuno und Antero de Quental Iberische Religionskritik, einbrechende Moderne und die Tragik des Verlustes

AbstractIn recent years the study of local religious histories, especially in Europe, has gained in prominence. Because of the encounters between different cultural traditions in the Middle Ages and the voyages of discovery, the religious history of the Iberian Peninsula became one of the most complex in Europe. This article focuses on one portion of this history around the turn of the 19th/20th century, and in particular on two attempts to blame the Catholic religion for the general crisis in Spain and Portugal at the start of the modern era. These two forms of critiquing religion are illustrated by the examples of Miguel de Unamuno and Antero de Quental, whose writings were characteristic of the typical relationship between religion and intellectuals in this period. Not only were the Spanish philosopher and the Portuguese poet influential on their own and later generations, but they are also truly representative of a certain tragic ”loss“ of religion in the Iberian Peninsula.

The Gothic Enterprise:A Guide to Understanding the Medieval Cathedral (review)

Reviewed by: The Gothic Enterprise:A Guide to Understanding the Medieval Cathedral Norbert Nußbaum The Gothic Enterprise: A Guide to Understanding the Medieval Cathedral. By Robert A. Scott. (Berkeley: University of California Press. 2003. Pp. xiv, 292.) On the surface, this book is a study about the great sacred structures of the High Middle Ages and the causes and circumstances of their creation. But anyone who reads it carefully will soon understand the actual topic paramount in Scott's distinctive perspective. The author is a social scientist who has discovered for himself the sheer fascination of the English cathedrals, reporting here in a very individual way about that voyage of discovery. At the core of this biographical process is Salisbury Cathedral, and it stands at the study's center. And because the Stonehenge megaliths are but a few miles away, at the book's end Scott juxtaposes two monuments as the creations in stone of two differing historical collectives. In this many-faceted and compelling study, he attempts to explore the motives and circumstances of existence of these two collectives. The book begins and ends with a sense of wonderment about the artifacts which first awakened the interest of scholars in the Gothic period some 250 years ago. Scott includes himself in the ranks of these discoverers of wonder in knowledgeable awe of Gothic artistry. He is in search of a kind of holistic understanding of the phenomenon. So he is not only interested in the construction of the great churches between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, and their fuller meaning. The buildings are also viewed as examples reflecting the ambition and productivity of a medieval feudal society whose cultural habitus was significantly stamped by a belief in the world beyond, cultic practices, magical thought, thinking in symbols and images, and the multiple constraints of a way of life constantly at existential risk. Scott has worked through an abundance of interdisciplinary literature in order to present as many varied aspects of his topic as possible, and his investigative curiosity carries him into the furthest nooks of medieval studies. This is further enriched by frequent consultation of standard works of diverse neighboring disciplines, and these lead to surprising and illuminating insights. However, the selection suffers from an essential limitation in that except for two studies, all the literature he cites is in English, or a work in English translation. The consequence is that Scott can report authoritatively on recent work in social history and the history of mentality, where Anglo-American research has been at the leading edge of inquiry, but when it comes to questions that require a better knowledge of Continental European discourse, his treatment remains inadequate. What I have in mind are, for example, the highly controversial debates, relativizing older theses, on the possibilities for a philosophical-theological interpretation of the medieval church as a model for heaven. Or inquiry on sacred space as a space for social and spiritual acts, or studies on the material economy and technology of the great stonemason workshops. A further result of his selective approach is the heavy focus on a specific geographical area, namely England. This tilt is not necessarily inimical to a correct total cultural-historical portrait, but that rather Anglo-centric picture is difficult to project and transpose onto the continent without certain gaps and fractures. [End Page 139] One may also wonder about the general utility of the findings. Scott investigates several of the fundamental questions on the position, function, and collective frame for action of the clerics almost exclusively in reference to the monastic vita communis of the early medieval period and High Middle Ages – being aware and correctly pointing out that some English cathedrals were under the control of monastic communities. But that was by no means the rule when viewed from a Continental vantage. There the clerical communities of the cathedral chapters were in the quickening process of dissolution precisely at the same time the first Gothic construction projects were launched. So the model of the vita communis cannot be regarded as a spiritual correlate of the community enterprise of the "cathedral." The specific weight given various topics here springs from a distinct discursive...

Basil Hall`s Account of a Voyage of Discovery: The Value of a British Naval Officer`s Account of Travels in the Seas of Eastern Asia in 1816

Basil Hall`s Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loochoo Island of 1818 is a valuable account of a British naval officer`s experiences which graphically illustrates the state of isolation of Korea at that time. It is also an important record because, being written just after the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, it stands chronologically on the cusp of historical events-Britain`s industrial development and imperial expansion. The views of Korea espoused by the Hall and his compatriots at that time are quite different from British views of Korea at the end of the nineteenth century.

The birth of The Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology

The birth of The Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology

Great Walls of Discourse and Other Adventures in Contemporary China (review)

Reviewed by: Great Walls of Discourse and Other Adventures in Contemporary China Henry Sussman Haun Saussy. Great Walls of Discourse and Other Adventures in Contemporary China. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2001. ix–xi + 289 pages. It takes no special virtue to share the present with China. Indeed, since Leibnitz's Novissima Sinica (1697), this is what intermediaries do best. The "coevalness" of civilizations is one of the givens of our field; it underwrites our brand of cultural pluralism. . . . Rather than a time line, with the Western present streaking away into the future, the favored figure of East-West philosophical chronology has been the intersection. Crucially, however, the intersection is the spot at which the interpreter appears. Without intermediaries, no mediation, only missed appointments. And this is where we see variation. The state of shared contemporaneity, although always possible, has to be explained through mutual explanations. It also requires some strategic manipulation of the relevant pasts and presents, so they will line up neatly with the point of convergence. (97) Armed with nothing more formidable than a thorough steeping in the arguments and issues surrounding contemporary critical theory and an impressive grounding in the histories of linguistics, China, and the broader global modernity, Haun Saussy emerges from Great Walls of Discourse as an authoritative commentator not only on contemporary China but on the exactions of interpretation itself. As the title that Saussy fashioned for this work indicates, he rightly sees himself as an adventurer in a long line of travelers, including Marco Polo, Matteo Ricci, and Ernest Fenollosa, who opened China to view. But for Saussy, the adventure of seeing and characterizing China inheres not so much in accessing the Great Wall, the ancient capital cities, the Classics, the histories, the system of elements, or an unbroken chain of aesthetic and artisanal productions. Saussy's adventure is, rather, a treacherous journey of cultural exegesis and engagement with the Other, even when the terms of its otherness are unknown or have been misconstrued. The trajectory of this voyage of discovery, always fraught with the dangers of ethnocentric projection, schematic oversimplification, and flat-out error, winds its way between [End Page 1274] vast spheres of cultural influence ("East" and "West") always out of tune and in skewed alignment with one another, between the margins of interpretative countertexts poised in mutual elucidation but conceived and composed under a constitutional cover of obscurity. Blindness, ambiguity, and misapprehension are preconditions of his quest that Saussy frontally addresses and incorporates into his accounts of phenomena including Fenollosa's legacy of Chinese translation, the appeal to the various "post-studies" made by contemporary Chinese scholars, and China's status during the heyday of French structuralism. And yet, as Saussy masterfully demonstrates early on, through an acute sense of historical and cultural differences, it is possible to discern (and if need be, orchestrate) constructive and generative dialogue between the cultural spheres, as between Matteo Ricci and Yang Tinyung at the outset of the seventeenth century, in a chapter entitled "In the Workshop of Equivalences." Through the analytical and ultimately ethical work of honing claims, contextualizing past formulations, looking askance precisely at attestations of novelty (or discovery), and never taking debunkings, however admirable, achieved elsewhere for granted, astute cultural commentators do, on occasion, get their observations right, as did Roland Barthes when he read his "Empire of Signs"—Japan—as a milieu semiologically configured by a certain extremity in its representations and an absence of apology for the resulting side-effects: The prevalence of polar schemes should always lead us to try to reconstruct the historical emergence of the antithesis and find the common basis on which it tacitly rests. (The more specifically the basis is defined, the better. . . .) On that footing, then, it becomes possible to redescribe the differences and recount their history: the poles were not always polar; they had to be polarized at some point. It is important to look for third parties, to try to neutralize oppositions by dissolving them in a larger framework, to trace their emergence or to show how artificial their symmetries are, because our previous equipment for thinking about China blinds us to such possibilities. (186) As Saussy characterizes and performs it, the...

ESA and the arts: A programme in the making

Space exploration is arguably the greatest voyage of discovery ever undertaken and just as artists have traditionally accompanied the great ocean and land voyages of the past, so artists have been and are at the forefront of space voyages of the future. Increasingly, the European Space Agency (ESA) is being asked to support or participate in artistic and cultural events, largely as a result of its study into science fiction literature and artwork. The paper first gives an overview of the relationship between space and art by discussing art that has been sent into space, orbital sculptures, art on Earth seen from space, and performance art and dance in zero gravity. The paper then provides an update on ESA's involvement in some activities in this domain including the organization of science fiction and space art exhibitions, workshops and competitions, and a recently launched study into how ESA might use the European components of the International Space Station for artistic and cultural events to enable the public to better share the human experience of space missions and interact with the sights and sounds of space.

Interpreting the Moon Landings: Project Apollo and the Historians

By focusing on the key book‐length studies of the Apollo program that landed American astronauts on the Moon in the 1960s and 1970s, this essay seeks to evaluate the historiography about Apollo in the first decade of the twenty‐first century, dividing the subject into five major areas. The first area is the foreign policy and public policy antecedents of Apollo and its immediate ramifications; some of these efforts have yielded significant studies. The second area involves the evolution of space hardware, in many instances these are overwhelmingly detailed studies of rockets and other space flight technologies. Third, there is a great fascination with the astronauts and their actual flights, and a rich tradition of memoir and narrative exists in this arena. The fourth area receiving attention from historians of Apollo and the lunar voyages emphasizes the history of science, in which much of the focus is on the scientists, scientific findings from the voyages of discovery, and the use of this evidence in developing larger theories about the origin and evolution of the solar system. Finally, and increasingly so in the last 20 years, the Apollo story has been recontextualized through social and cultural investigations of its meaning in modern America. Assessing the five major areas enumerated above, this essay also offers some possibly fruitful avenues of future research.

Geometrical landscapes: The voyages of discovery and the transformation of mathematical practice

Feel like writing a review for The Mathematical Intelligencer? You are welcome to submit an unsolicited review of a book of your choice; or, if you would welcome being assigned a book to review, please write us, telling us your expertise and your predilections.

A Mariner with Crippling Arthritis and Bleeding Eyes

A 41-year-old mariner developed acute arthritis affecting his legs more than his arms or hands during a violent storm on his return from the first of four voyages of discovery. He experienced repeated attacks of the arthritis over the ensuing 14 years, which on at least two occasions were accompanied by painful eyes "much affected with bleeding." He died shortly before his 55 birthday "quite paralyzed and bedridden." Who was he, and what was the likely etiology of his disorder?

Did Vasco da Gama Matter for European Markets? Testing Frederick Lane's Hypotheses Fifty Years Later

In his seminal publications between the 1930s and 1960s, Frederick Lane offered three hypotheses regarding the impact of the Voyages of Discovery that have guided debate ever since. First, pepper and other spice prices did not rise in European markets in the century before the 1490s, and thus could not have %u2018pulled in%u2019 the oceanic explorations by their rising scarcity. Second, Portuguese circumnavigation of Africa did not lower European spice prices across the 16th century, implying that the discovery of the Cape route had no permanent effect on Euro-Asian market integration. Third, 15th century Venetian spice markets were already well integrated with those in Iberia and northern Europe, implying that Portugal could not have had an intra-European market integrating influence in the 16th century. Lane developed these influential hypotheses by relying heavily on nominal spice prices from Venice and the Levant. This paper revisits Lane%u2019s hypotheses by using instead relative spice prices, that is, accounting for inflation. It also draws on evidence from Iberia and northern Europe. In addition, it explores European market integration before and after 1503, the year when da Gama returned from his financially successful second voyage. Lane%u2019s three hypotheses are rejected: the impact of the Portuguese was profound on all fronts. We conclude by using a simple model of monopoly and oligopoly to decompose the sources of the Cape route%u2019s impact on European markets.

“I Would Rather Be Honest Than Wise”

Published in the wake of two major communications and cultural transformations in early modern Europe, namely, the advent of print and the voyages of discovery, Thomas More's Utopia taps into the authorship conventions and fictional protocols associated with printing and cartographic practices. This study maps out the sociocultural impact of print on historical, geographical and fictional representations of space in Utopia. It also explores the extent to which the book and its parerga function as part of a new economy of writing and reading, rooted in early modern forms of textual legitimation. This new understanding of the printed text pertaining to the publication of Utopia calls for a reexamination of the authorial and epistemological strategies for establishing credibility in close relation to the writing protocols entailed by the early sixteenth-century print culture.

"This reversed order of things": Re-Orientation aboard HMS Beagle

This essay explores how Darwin's Beagle Diary navigates between geographical and intellectual travel in logging a literal voyage of discovery; it focuses on the diary's allegorical use of geography in a narrative of religious disorientation, and on Darwin's descriptions of the disorienting effects of encountering different cultures and environments.

A Hitchhiker’s Guide to the NIEHS Strategic Plan

A Hitchhiker’s Guide to the NIEHS Strategic Plan

Across the Continent: Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and the Making of America

Space is clearly at a premium on Lewis and Clark bookshelves as a consequence of a deluge of new publications inspired by the bicentennial of Thomas Jefferson's vaunted voyage of discovery. Significantly, many of the more compelling additions to this latest literary outpouring bypass the actual journey to focus on the expedition in a larger historical context apart from the traditional celebratory narrative of westward expansion. Across the Continent is a noteworthy example of this trend. In making selections for their multidisciplinary collection of essays, editors Douglas Seefeldt, Jeffrey L. Hantman, and Peter S. Onuf opted to look beyond the expedition in order to “explore the complicated ways in which the explorers' world connects to our own” (p. 6). Onuf and Hantman's introductory essay sets the stage with a thoughtful review of the challenges confronting scholars desirous of finding appropriate ways to mark this much-hyped historical milestone. While asserting that in its own time the expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark did not matter that much, they readily acknowledge the odyssey's importance as a quasi-mythological touchstone for American self-understanding. With each passing generation the Corps of Discovery looms ever larger in the American historical imagination and continues to influence popular perceptions of the past. Onuf and Hantman eschew a futile battle to vanquish deeply rooted mythologies, believing that providing an alternative view of the geopolitical, cultural, and scientific context of the explorers' world will yield more productive results and facilitate current efforts to make better sense of the expedition's proper place in history.