Voluntary Process Research Articles

To have or not to have? Australian women’s childbearing desires, expectations and outcomes

Australia’s low fertility rate is commonly attributed to deliberate decisions by women to avoid having children. Existing theoretical explanations of fertility decision-making mostly view childbearing as a rational, voluntary process and focus on the ‘costs’ to women of having children. Although this may help explain why women do not have children, it contributes very little to understanding why women do have children. This study describes childbearing desires, expectations and outcomes in a population-based sample of 569 30–34-years-old Australian women recruited from the Australian Electoral Roll in 2005. Most women surveyed wanted to have children, and their childbearing outcomes were associated with biological, psychological and social factors including the lack of a partner and adverse health conditions. The factors and their relative importance varied by parity. Most women had fewer children than they desired, and many would have children, or more children, if their circumstances were different. These data challenge prevailing assumptions about women’s childbearing behaviour that women are able to choose when and if they have a child. Based on the findings, a conceptual framework of childbearing behaviour is proposed which builds on existing theoretical explanations to explain why women do and do not have children, differences by parity, and the role of circumstances in women’s childbearing behaviour. The findings and conceptual framework have implications for public policies, and indicate that multiple approaches are required which are sensitive to and address the barriers women face in family formation.

The status of low vision rehabilitation and certification in the state of Michigan

Background With the estimated increase in the number of Americans with vision-related disabilities on the horizon, the need for optometrists with expertise in low vision rehabilitation services will increase. State optometric certification in low vision rehabilitation is currently only available in 3 states through affiliations between the state optometric associations and other organizations or government entities. Methods A mail survey was conducted among Michigan Optometric Association member optometrists designed to address the current percentage of optometrists who practice low vision rehabilitation as well as the percentage who are low vision certified through the Michigan Optometric Association and to establish future need for additional low vision rehabilitation providers in the state. Results Of the 188 participants, only 26.0% stated that they provide low vision rehabilitation services, the majority of whom provide only primary care low vision rehabilitation. Only 6.4% of respondents are certified low vision rehabilitation specialists through the Michigan Optometric Association. Conclusion The low percentage of optometrists in the state of Michigan who practice low vision rehabilitation may lead to a shortage of providers for the aging and visually impaired Michigan population seeking low vision rehabilitation services. Even fewer are certified low vision providers through the voluntary Michigan Optometric Association certification process.

Development of Standard Method Performance Requirements for Biological Threat Agent Detection Methods

Standards and third-party testing are necessary to demonstrate the performance and limitations of biological threat agent (biothreat) detection technologies to allow appropriate response actions by end-users and responders. In order to address this need, the Department of Homeland Security, Science and Technology Directorate has funded AOAC INTERNATIONAL to develop standards and perform conformity assessment. AOAC formed the Stakeholder Panel on Agent Detection Assays to develop consensus performance criteria (standard method performance requirements; SMPRs) for methods that detect biothreats. This paper documents the development of the first five biothreat SMPRs, including the voluntary consensus process, the components of an SMPR, the use of SMPRs in developing validation protocols, and a description of the development efforts and considerations for each of the current SMPRs.

The Desire Thinking Questionnaire: Development and psychometric properties

Desire thinking is a voluntary cognitive process involving verbal and imaginal elaboration of a desired target. Recent research has highlighted the role of desire thinking in the maintenance of addictive, eating and impulse control disorders. The goal of this research project was to develop the first self-report measure of desire thinking. In Study 1 we constructed the Desire Thinking Questionnaire (DTQ) and conducted a preliminary factor analysis which identified two factors. The first factor concerned the perseveration of verbal thoughts about desire-related content and experience and was named ‘Verbal Perseveration’. The second factor concerned the tendency to prefigure images about desire-related content and experience and was named ‘Imaginal Prefiguration’. In Study 2 we performed a confirmatory factor analysis which provided support for this two factor solution, with both factors achieving adequate internal consistency. Divergent validity was also established through correlation analyses. In Study 3 the temporal stability of the DTQ was examined and confirmed. Finally, in Study 4, the predictive validity of the DTQ in a sample of alcohol abusers was investigated. The DTQ was shown to possess good psychometric properties, as well as divergent and predictive validity. This self-report measure may aid future research into desire thinking and craving, as well as facilitate assessment and case formulation within the context of addictive, eating and impulse control disorders.

Forgiveness, depression, and suicidal behavior among a diverse sample of college students

Depression and suicide are significant public health concerns for college-age young adults. Meaning-based characteristics, such as forgiveness, a voluntary coping process involving offering, feeling, or seeking a change from negative to positive cognitions, behaviors, and affect toward a transgressor, may buffer such poor mental health outcomes. Utilizing mediation analyses, we examined cross-sectional associations between forgiveness, depression, and suicidal behavior in a diverse student sample reporting mild to severe depressive symptoms. The effect of self-forgiveness on suicidal behavior was fully mediated by depression; self-forgiveness was associated with depression and, in turn, with suicidal behavior. Forgiveness of others was directly associated with suicidal behavior. Prospective research is needed, yet self and other-forgiveness may be appropriate targets for promotion in suicide prevention efforts.

Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Unique Role in Cognition and Emotion

Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Unique Role in Cognition and Emotion

Occupational Stress And Turnover Issues In Public Accounting: The Mediating Effects Of Locus Of Control, Social Support, And Employment Expectations

At the aggregate level, turnover costs firms in the accounting profession billions of dollars each year (Larkin 1995). Though the costs of turnover vary widely from firm to firm, one study estimates that each separation costs firms $4,000 to $8,000 in training and recruiting costs (Roth and Roth 1995). Further complicating the professions turnover dilemma, changing organizational structures and workforce demographics are forcing public accounting firms to update employee recruitment and retention programs. The increased importance of recruitment and retention efforts coupled with the detrimental effects of turnover have led researchers to gain a better understanding of the voluntary turnover process in public accounting. The demanding and time-pressure nature of the public accounting work environment coupled with the professions lack of success in retaining women and minorities suggests that occupational stress may have an increasingly negative impact on the accounting profession. Through the development and testing of a behavioral-based theoretical model, this study attempts to expand our understanding of the turnover process that transpires in public accounting. The study proposes that three factors act as mediators of occupational stress and subsequently impact employee turnover. Specifically, locus of control (personality type), the perception of adequate social support (a source of additional information), and the bestowing of realistic employment expectations (knowledge acquired at hiring) are all modeled as buffers of occupational stress. Results of a path analytic procedure support the theoretical model suggesting that the aforementioned constructs could become critical components of the accounting professions recruitment and retention processes.

Response to ‘When Disaster Strikes: Death of a Living Organ Donor’

To the Editor: Drs. Ratner and Sandoval (1Ratner LE Sandoval PR When disaster strikes: Death of a living organ donor.Am J Transplant. 2010; 10: 2577-2581Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar) recently offered living donor safety recommendations relating to the national Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (OPTN), operated under federal contract by United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). At its most recent meeting, the OPTN/UNOS Board of Directors endorsed five key priority goals for future policy development; one of these is to optimize the health and safety of living donors. This is a priority the entire field of transplantation must uphold. In 2006, the Health Resources and Services Administration of the US Department of Health and Human Services clarified the OPTN’s authority to develop policies to protect the health and safety of living donors. The OPTN has since established several key processes or initiatives. They include the following: •Specific requirements for OPTN designation of member living donor kidney and liver programs, including qualifications of key personnel and a requirement for an independent donor advocate;•Voluntary guidance to address procedures for living donor evaluation and informed consent;•A requirement for centers to report living donor deaths or organ failure within 72 h of becoming aware of the event; the OPTN then reviews these events for issues of policy compliance or threats to public health or safety;•A requirement for centers to submit living donor follow-up data for 2 years, as well as addition of data fields to assess living donor outcomes;•Site reviews of living donor programs and solicitation of living donor best practices. We agree more can (and must) be done to reduce living donor morbidity and mortality to the lowest possible level. We also agree the tragic occurrence of living donor deaths or major complications should engender greater sharing among all transplant programs of lessons learned, to further reduce risk for future donors. We support transparency regarding medical adverse events as the most effective means to improve medical safety. The recommendation to study donor ‘near miss’ events and share lessons with the transplant community is of particular interest. The OPTN/UNOS Operations and Safety Committee advocates a similar process for all living donor and transplant patient safety issues within the OPTN’s purview. As a model, we have studied national processes for aviation safety reporting. That system separates reporting and data analysis for voluntary process improvement versus enforcement of regulation. We are exploring the challenges to develop such a mechanism within the authority of the OPTN. Additional clinical or administrative practices that may guard against adverse living donor outcomes remain within the purview of transplant practitioners. The OPTN and UNOS have established a process to work with the American Society of Transplant Surgeons, the American Society of Transplantation and NATCO, the Organization for Transplant Professionals, to guide the development of OPTN initiatives as they affect clinical practice. We believe this is a key opportunity to leverage the expertise and commitment of the OPTN and the clinical practice community to improve outcomes for all who risk their own life and well-being for the benefit of others. The author of this manuscript has no conflicts of interest to disclose as described by the American Journal of Transplantation.

La coordination européenne « à la bolognaise »

Résumé Cet article s’intéresse à la construction de l’Espace européen d’enseignement supérieur, ou processus de Bologne. Il s’appuie sur et discute l’approche des instruments d’action publique pour recomposer en détails la structuration et l’instrumentation d’un dispositif de coordination des politiques nationales d’enseignement supérieur. Cette approche permet de comprendre d’une part comment ce processus initialement souple et volontaire est piloté par son instrument transversal (le stocktaking ) et en vient à exercer une contrainte sur les États participants. Elle permet d’autre part de caractériser une forme de coordination « à la bolognaise » à la fois familière avec les « nouveaux modes de gouvernance européens » et particulière dans son mode de relation à l’Union européenne, puisqu’elle s’est développée et institutionnalisée à la marge du cadre institutionnel de l’UE.

CHILDREN’S HEALTH: School Siting: EPA Says Location Matters

Fifty-three million U.S. children and 6 million employees spend much of the day in a public or private school.1 Pollution problems in these settings are so widespread that the Congress mandated in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develop model guidelines for choosing healthier sites for new schools. On 17 November 2010, the agency released a draft of its new voluntary guidelines.1,2 About 1,900 new schools were built in the 2008–2009 school year, according to the EPA, continuing a relatively similar construction trend since 20023 and bringing the total number of public and private schools to about 135,000.1 The number of existing schools in settings that could be harmful to children is unknown, says Peter Grevatt, director of the EPA Office of Children’s Health Protection. The guidelines are designed mainly for use in siting new primary and secondary (K–12) schools, but the principles behind the guidelines could be adapted for many other existing and new settings where children spend long periods. They cover a wide range of topics, including toxicity on the school site and from nearby properties; other health-related issues such as bicycle and pedestrian access to increase student exercise; maximizing community use of the school; and minimizing disruption of relatively undisturbed environments. Jason Hartke, vice president of national policy for the U.S. Green Building Council, is generally pleased with the congressional mandate and EPA’s actions so far. “There is a strong need for EPA guidelines,” he says. “This is another really important tool in the toolbox” for creating healthier schools. Stephen Lester, science director for the Center for Health, Environment & Justice, also is generally supportive: “There’s a lot of good information in these guidelines.” But he says they offer too much wiggle room for allowing schools to be built on toxic sites, such as Superfund properties. He’d rather see language that sanctions such decisions only as a very last resort. That’s important, he says, because school districts “never have enough money for monitoring and maintenance,” even if the original planning, design, and engineering for mitigating toxicity problems were deemed acceptable. He also would prefer a no-exceptions guideline that directs use of the more-protective cleanup standard for residential use for all school sites.4 A broader concern is that many school districts may choose to ignore the voluntary guidelines. Interest in environmental health issues “is very spotty,” Lester says, especially when so many other issues—including site availability, zoning, and cost—are high priorities. Even in the U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) voluntary certification process for schools,5 toxicity issues account for only 10 of the 110 optional points.6 The public can comment on the draft guidelines until 18 February 2011. A final version is scheduled for release in late 2011.

Punishing the Penitent: Disproportionate Fines in Recent FCPA Enforcements and Suggested Improvements

The Department of Justice has long promised tangible benefits to companies that voluntarily disclose Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) violations. Justice Department officials have promised that the enforcement of the FCPA is both fair and consistent. Despite these promises, critics question the benefits of voluntary disclosure based on the outcome of a few, isolated cases. In this thesis, forty FCPA cases from 2002 through 2009 are compiled, comparing the ratio between bribes and fines for companies that do and do not voluntarily disclose. The results side with the critics and reveal that there does not appear to be a benefit to voluntary disclosure. The data from these cases is then used to identify how the FCPA can be honed to encourage compliance and deter violations in a fairer and more efficient manner. Next, comparisons are made between the FCPA and other anti-corruption organizations and entities, with the intent of incorporating refinements to the voluntary disclosure enforcement process. These comparisons consider not only the legal framework for preventing bribery but also how those laws are enforced. Finally, recent FCPA developments are considered along with some suggested actions to bring more fairness and efficiency to voluntary disclosures under the FCPA.

Metacognitions in Desire Thinking: A Preliminary Investigation

Desire thinking is defined as a voluntary thinking process orienting to prefigure images, information and memories about positive target-related experience. Recent research has highlighted the role of desire thinking in the maintenance of addictive, eating and impulse control disorders. Currently little is known about metacognitions in desire thinking. To investigate: (1) the presence and content of desire thinking during a desire experience; (2) the presence of metacognitive beliefs in desire thinking; (3) the goal of desire thinking; (4) attentional focus during desire thinking; and (5) the impact of desire thinking on craving. Twenty-four individuals with a diagnosis of either alcohol abuse, bulimia nervosa, pathological gambling or smoking dependence were assessed using a semi-structured interview. Findings indicated that participants engaged in desire thinking and endorsed both positive and negative metacognitive beliefs about this process. The goal of desire thinking was to regulate internal states. Participants also reported that during a desire experience their attentional focus was continuously shifting between internal state and external context and that engaging in desire thinking increased craving. These findings provide preliminary evidence that metacognitions play a role in desire thinking.

Sustainable Facilities and LEED Certification: A Broadcaster's Guide

The design and construction of the Broadcast Facility is evolving. The facility and its supporting spaces are being affected by the growing trend of states and municipalities to integrate sustainable design requirements into building codes. The LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), which rates completed projects at four levels—Certified, Silver, Gold and Platinum—has emerged as the choice standard after over ten years of use. LEED, at its core, is a voluntary process which has evolved into a program increasingly garnished with incentives of all types and is now into its first signs of being prescribed as a code requirement. This paper will present to Broadcasters an introduction to the structure of LEED and its seven primary areas of impact, namely; Site, Water Management, Energy, Materials, Indoor Air Quality, Innovation/Design and Process and Regional Priority. It will also describe how it applies specifically to Broadcasters in its two relevant LEED versions: New Construction and Commercial Interiors. The purpose is to demystify what constitutes sustainable construction by showing the different strategies and options available to achieve points in each category that will lead to a successfully certified project. A facility that takes into account these new requirements smartly will serve the end users in a healthy manner, will be financially justifiable, will be less costly to maintain and operate, and will meet the growing national need for sustainable design.

The Roles that Forecast Surprise and Forecast Error Play in Determining Management Forecast Precision

SYNOPSIS: Studying the determinants of management forecast precision is important because a better understanding of the factors affecting management’s choice of forecast precision can provide investors and other users with cues about the characteristics of the information contained in the forecasts. In addition, as regulators assess the regulation of voluntary management disclosures, they need to better understand how managers choose among forecast precision disclosure alternatives. Using 16,872 management earnings forecasts collected from 1995 through 2004, we provide strong evidence that forecast precision is negatively associated with the magnitude of the forecast surprise and that this negative association is stronger when the forecast is bad news than when it is good news. We also find that forecast precision is negatively associated with the absolute magnitude of the forecast error that proxies for the forecast uncertainty that managers face when they issue forecasts, and that the negative association is stronger when forecast errors are negative. These results are consistent with greater liability concerns related to bad news forecasts and negative forecast errors, respectively. Our study provides educators and researchers with important insights into management’s choice of earnings forecast precision, which is a component of the voluntary disclosure process that is not well understood.

Single-trial EEG Power and Phase Dynamics Associated with Voluntary Response Inhibition

Human voluntary response inhibition has frequently been investigated using go/no-go RT tasks. Recent studies have indicated that not only the traditional averaging waveforms of EEG activities (ERPs) but also the power and phase dynamics of single-trial EEG are important in studying the neural correlates of various human cognitive functions. Therefore, here, we aimed to undertake a detailed study of the time/frequency power and phase dynamics of single-trial EEG during go/no-go RT tasks, with focus particularly on the no-go-specific power and phase dynamics, which are presumed to involve the voluntary response inhibition processes. Thus, we demonstrated no-go-specific theta band EEG power increases and intertrial phase-locking in the midline-frontal areas, which are related to no-go-specific midline-frontal negative-positive ERP waveforms (no-go N2/no-go P3). In addition, we observed no-go-specific alpha band EEG intertrial phase-locking with an adjacent dephasing phenomenon, which is mainly associated with the early part of no-go N2. The estimated time point when the no-go-specific midline-frontal dephasing phenomenon occurred corresponded to the initial part of the voluntary response inhibition process (decision to withhold). Moreover, the no-go-specific phase dynamics in the midline-frontal areas just before and around the no-go N2 peak latency, unlike the power modulations, were affected by changes in the no-go stimulus probability, suggesting the dependence of only phase dynamics on no-go stimulus probability. From these results, we conclude that the complex power and phase dynamics of the theta and alpha band EEG in the midline-frontal areas are specific to no-go trials, being the underlying bases of the no-go-specific ERP waveforms, and suggest that the phase dynamics just before and around the no-go N2 peak latency may involve, at least, the initial part of the voluntary response inhibition process (decision to withhold).

Undergraduate nursing education in the United States

Nursing education in the United States began in the 1870s with hospital training schools modeled after the Nightingale plan. Presently there are three educational paths that students may take to become a registered nurse (RN). These are the baccalaureate degree (BS), the associate degree (AD) and the diploma. Accelerated nursing programs are also available for people who have a baccalaureate degree in another field. Nursing education and nursing practice in the United States is regulated by each of the 50 states. The focus of nursing education is the preparation of nurses who use critical thinking skills to provide comprehensive patient-centered care to a variety of clients. It is expected that nurses will function using evidence-based practice in a culturally competent, safe manner. Nursing schools must be approved by the state in which they exist. In addition to this, most nursing schools are also accredited, a voluntary process that is done by a non-governmental association. All graduates take the same licensing exam, a computer adaptive test that is from 75 to 265 items long. In 2008 almost 120,000 US educated graduates were first time test takers; 85.5% passed the exam. Trends in nursing education include a focus on evidence based practice, an emphasis on safety and quality, patient education and management of chronic conditions, genetics and genomics and the use of simulation in nursing education.

Keeping an eye on future: Medical tourism

Keeping an eye on future: Medical tourism

Структура патопсихологического синдрома шизофренического дефекта с позиции теории субъектной регуляции деятельности

The structure of pathopsychological syndrome that determines schizophrenic defect is analyzed from the position of general psychology. It is shown that its indicators such as reduction of need-motive characteristics of social behavior regulation, reduction of phyche activity, voluntary process disorder, criticality deficit have their “analogues” in the structure of subjective activity regulation. The results of experimental research are represented. They prove that the low level of regulatory components development and the lack of integrity within the system of schizophrenia patients’ subjective regulation reveal the poor effectiveness of their regulatory system.

Green management: the reality of being green in business

Green management and going green are not as clear cut and easy as hyped by the general media. While going ecologically green is indeed beneficial and appropriate, the process and procedure of becoming green is anything but easy. Firstly, turning green is largely not a legal requirement, but a voluntary process. Thus, even though LEED (which is by far the more publicly known green certification standard) governs the certification of the green management effort, it is not a compulsory condition for practitioners to go green. Secondly, even with the encouragement of incentives to comply, practitioners are skeptical in becoming green due to: (a) a lack of true understanding of the benefit of ecologically friendly procedures (the practice of profits versus the theory of benefits); (b) lack of short term gain in life cycle costing (practitioners want instant incentives); and (c) mostly, because it is not a legal requirement for the vast majority of municipalities.

Growth and Progress

Growth and progress: Both words describe development and evolution of a being or thing. And both are very appropriate for the Online Journal of Rural Nursing and Health Care as we bring to close our tenth year of online publication.Growth: The readership of the Journal has increase dramatically. This is especially true of the last five years. In 2005 there were 63,010 hits on the Journal and in the first 10 months of 2009 there were over 12 times that number (7,984,640). That is quite an increase! In examining the data I found that about 65% of the readers are in the United States but the other 35% come from over 90 countries. The articles submitted for review for the journal are also indicative of substantial growth, with only an occasional submission from countries outside the United States to almost a third of the submissions in 2009 coming from authors in other countries. The Editorial Board and Review panel also have members from around the world. In addition the breadth of topics has grown as well.In this spirit of growth this issue has two guest Editorials. They are on very different topics and I hope hold interest for our readers. In addition, this issue has more articles included than ever before. It is very exciting to see the response to, and the need for the Online Journal of Rural Nursing and Health Care.Progress: At the same time we have made changes occasionally to facilitate the publication as we have progressed through the evolution of the Journal. Another change will be coming in 2010 as we take the Online Journal of Rural Nursing and Health Care out of the open publication format and put it into the Subscription Based Journal category and move its publication to an established publisher rather than a voluntary process for the Editor and Managing Editor. Our promise to you is that we will do our best to keep it as accessible as possible for all our readers.