Rock Volume Research Articles

Numerical simulation of a base metal deposit related to a fossil geothermal system

Fossil and active geothermal systems that produce ore deposits are sites of complex physicochemical processes and a favorable combination of factors related to the amount of metal-bearing fluid that flows through the system, ore fluid metal concentrations, depositional efficiency, and the duration of ore deposition. Of all these factors, the length of the mineralizing event is one of the least understood aspects of ore genesis.We used fluid inclusion data, chemical compositions of base metal sulfides, and fluid flow rates to constrain a reactive-transport model of a fossil geothermal system - the Patricia Zn-Pb-Ag deposit in northern Chile. The Patricia deposit consists of quartz and base metal sulfide veins of hydrothermal origin with structural control, hosted in a volcanic succession with intense propylitic alteration. The fluid inclusions are liquid-rich, with homogenization temperatures ranging from 250 to 150 °C and salinities between 22 and 1 wt% NaCl equiv., with an early fluid mixing trend and no evidence of boiling in the system. Sulfide mineralogy indicates intermediate sulfidation conditions.To identify the most relevant geochemical and transport parameters controlling the formation of this fossil geothermal system >1000 simulations were performed using the reactive-transport code TOUGHREACT. The paragenesis of the deposit is mimicked by a model of successive stages of fluid circulation consistent with the observed mineral assemblage distribution, the fluid inclusion data, and the estimated resources in the deposit.The entire geothermal activity of the system was modeled considering 10,000 years of fluid-rock interaction, with periods of circulation of metal-barren fluids followed by metal-rich fluids driving the ore formation. In the initial model, base metal solubility with predominant chloride complexing suggests that the most efficient ore-forming mechanism for the Patricia deposit was the result of the interaction of two different fluids, one fluid transporting metals and another fluid transporting reduced sulfur, mixing in a rock volume of high permeability. Mass balance estimations with this model give a period of 3500 to 5000 years for the ore stage duration in which all the ore resources of the Patricia deposit could have been precipitated by fluid mixing.In a second model, the previous estimates for the duration of the main ore stage were used to simulate the fluid-rock interaction during the ore stage for 3500 years. The results indicated the importance of the permeability of the host rock enhanced by fractures to concentrate the volume of the mineralization and the role of the hydrothermal alteration assemblage in controlling the circulating fluid acidity. A higher efficiency in forming sulfide minerals appears to coincide with pH values ranging from 5.1 to 5.3.The results of both models are validated by replicating the system evolution, reproducing the same mineral alteration assemblage, the expected base metal resource distribution, and similar amounts of ore resources to those of the Patricia deposit: a total of 52,602 tons of lead and 157,731 tons of zinc. The models indicate that the hydrothermal event might be two times longer than the ore stage.

Spatial Persistence of High Strain Events During Brittle Failure

AbstractThe onset of brittle failure in rocks includes dilatancy and strain localization. To better understand this nucleation process, we analyze the evolution of the local three‐dimensional strain tensor using X‐ray tomograms acquired during triaxial compression experiments on granite and sandstone. The onset of the localization of the compaction, dilation, and shear strain occurs when ∼65% of the rock volume experiences dilation. Tracking the locations of the high strains throughout loading suggests that the deformation that occurs early in loading influences the location of the system‐sized fracture network that produces macroscopic failure. This influence is larger in the sandstone experiments than the granite experiments, likely due to the microstructure of the sandstone. These results have important implications for detecting precursors to catastrophic failure.

Off-fault deformation feedback and strain localization precursor during laboratory earthquakes

Recent large-scale seismological observations have shown that off-fault strain localization and foreshock migration could serve as an early warning of an impending earthquake. However, this process is still largely unknown. In this study, state-of-the-art friction experiments were conducted in a oil-confined biaxial shear apparatus to investigate the link between stick-slip nucleation and off-fault deformation. Our findings indicate that there is a direct link between stick-slip nucleation and off-fault deformation, provided that the fault is conditionally unstable (a − b < 0). Inelastic off-fault deformation may trigger unstable slip by decreasing the stiffness of the surrounding rock volume, which favors earthquake nucleation. Additionally, the study presents laboratory observation of precursory strain localization around a fault during stick-slip cycles. These findings suggest that volumetric deformation processes could be a main factor in the nucleation of large ruptures and strain localization could be a reliable harbinger of large earthquakes.

A method for structural framework variation of a multilayer field associated with complicated geology

Background. During the probabilistic resource base estimation, the largest uncertainties are associated with the wide range of the gross rock volume. In the course of the formation area work, the resulting maps of gross thickness are constructed incorrectly. Objective. To take into account facies zoning when varying the structural framework if working with the Achimov strata of a multilayer field. Materials and methods. The applied approach implies accounting of the errors in structural constructions in proportion to the power depending on facies zones. The authors proposed an additional stage of mapping using proportion maps to avoid obtaining geologically unrealistic local power anomalies. Results. A set of modified maps of the total thickness of clinocyclites was obtained, reflecting the key features of the geological structure of the modeling object, particularly facies differentiation and related lateral heterogeneity. Conclusions. The chosen approach to constructing maps of gross thickness allowed to obtain geologically realistic maps of effective thickness, which, in turn, formed the basis for mapping of productive volume.

A Mesoscale Comparative Analysis of the Elastic Modulus in Rock-Filled Concrete for Structural Applications

Rock-filled concrete (RFC) is an advanced construction material that integrates high-performance self-compacting concrete (HSCC) with large rocks exceeding 300 mm, providing advantages such as reduced hydration heat and increased construction processes. The elastic modulus of RFC is a critical parameter that directly influences its structural performance, making it vital for modern construction applications that require strength and stiffness. However, there is a scientific gap in understanding the effects of rock size, shape, arrangement, and volumetric ratio on this parameter. This study investigates these factors using mesoscale finite element models (FEMs) with spherical and polyhedral rocks. The results reveal that polyhedral rocks increase the elastic modulus compared to spherical rocks, enhancing RFC’s load-bearing capacity. Additionally, a 5% increase in the elastic modulus was observed when the rockfill ratio was increased from 50% to 60%, demonstrating a direct correlation between rock volume and mechanical performance. Furthermore, the elastic modulus rises significantly in the early stages of placement, followed by a gradual increase over time. Optimal rock sizes and a balanced mix of rock shapes allow for improved concrete flow and mechanical properties, making RFC a highly efficient material for construction. These findings offer valuable insights for designers and engineers looking to optimize RFC for structural applications.

New bulk rock and age data on the changes in magma evolution during the Miocene, Galatean volcanic area, central Anatolia, Turkey: A review

The Galatean Volcanic Province (GVP) lies within the Sakarya tectonic belt in the northwest of central Anatolia, Turkey, south of the North Anatolian Fault, cropping out over 12,000 km2. It consists of Early Miocene intermediate to acid lavas, pyroclastic rocks, volcaniclastic deposits, and Late Miocene OIB-like basalts. Our study is based on new bulk geochemistry, SrNd isotopes, and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the volcanic rocks from the south-western part of GVP, but integrates all the available previous data to understand how magmas evolved in the post-collisional geodynamic condition in the GVP. The initial eruptions were rhyolitic, as domes or pyroclastic deposits (Group 1) and basaltic lavas (Group 2) during the Early Miocene. Group 2 is also represented by large volumes of basaltic-andesitic, trachyandesite-dacite/trachydacite lava flows, small intrusions, and pyroclastic deposits as generated between 21 and 14 Ma. Relatively low 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.705–0.706) of the early rhyolites (Group 1), similar to all the rocks from Group (2), suggest the generation of hybrid melts with variable contributions of mantle-derived and crustal material. The volcanic activity ends with OIB-like basalts (11–7 Ma) showing the lowest 87Sr/86Sr (∼0.703) suggesting an asthenospheric origin.The geodynamic model, based on post-Cyprian slab rollback, results in long-term (22–13 Ma) post-collisional delamination/drip processes that support magmatism. This magmatism is generated in the lithospheric mantle, with the formation of basaltic melts and acid hybrid melts showing variable contributions of mantle-derived and crustal materials in a complex trans-crustal magma plumbing system. Complex mixing of various intra-crustal magmas and fractional crystallization processes generated a huge volume of volcanic rocks. The Late Miocene small-volume OIB basalts were asthenospheric melts that during the late stage recorded localized decompression melting processes.

Chronostratigraphy and compositional characteristics of miocene volcanism in the Sierra de Pire Mahuida, extra-Andean Patagonia, Argentina

The Pire Mahuida Volcanic Complex (PMVC), located in the extra-Andean region of southern Argentina (68° to 68° 40′W and 41° 51′ to 42° 28′ S), is a bimodal volcanic field that developed during the Miocene (17Ma-14Ma, Langhian-Burdigalian Stages). The complex partially surrounds the southern boundary of the Somún Curá basaltic plateau. The PMVC is mainly composed of acidic pyroclastic and lava facies (rhyolite/dacite flows, lava domes and coulees) and stands out as the one with the largest volume of acid rocks in the Somún Curà province, involving two evolutionary trends (alkaline and subalkaline). Subordinate in volume, basaltic flows overlie this extensive sequence of acidic rocks. Relationships between some units are difficult to establish because they are the result of different eruptive centres. However, stratigraphy, morphology and petrography allow two acid phases to be distinguished, one a mainly lavic phase and the other a mainly pyroclastic phase. U-Pb ages allow precise dating and temporal placement of the acid sequence: 1- lava flows and 2- lava domes and related pyroclastic phases. Two calderas and fissures are responsible for the emission of the felsic rocks. The basaltic facies shows a wide range of characteristics, which also allow two different groups to be distinguished. 1. The basalts of the main plateau are associated with a main fault of NW-SE pattern and 2.The younger basalts are associated with small volcanic edifices. The effusion of the complex was developed in a relatively short time with the basic episode being more prolonged than the acid episode.

Organic petrographic and geochemical insights into organic matter derived from land plants and marine algae in the Lark Formation, Danish North Sea

Climatic fluctuations from the Eocene to the Miocene highlight the importance of investigating the paleoenvironment of the latest Eocene to the Middle Miocene Lark Formation in the Danish North Sea. This study investigates immature sedimentary organic matter in the Lark Formation using 54 cuttings samples and one core sample collected from seven wells in the eastern North Sea Basin. Organic petrography and molecular geochemistry analyses were performed to determine the variations in the quantity and origin of allochthonous and autochthonous organic matter. Additionally, the study assesses the impact of climate fluctuations on marine productivity in the eastern North Sea Basin and land plant vegetation at the basin margins during the latest Eocene to the Middle Miocene.The organic matter in the Lark Formation originated from mixed sources, primarily land plants, with a secondary contribution from marine algae. This is indicated by the maceral composition and the types and abundance of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon biomarker compounds. Moreover, the presence of diterpenoids (gymnosperm biomarkers) and non-hopanoid triterpenoids (angiosperm biomarkers) reveals that the allochthonous organic matter originated from conifers and angiosperms.Climatic impacts on land plants and marine algae during the latest Eocene to the Middle Miocene are revealed by several parameters: the Averaged Chain Length (ACL) of land plant waxes, the proportion of coniferous contribution (C/(C + A)), and the whole rock volume percentages of huminite, inertinite (H + I, vol%) and liptinite (L, vol%). The shifts to cooler and drier climates highlighted the cold adaptation of onshore conifers and resulted in the input of higher molecular weight waxy components into the sediments. However, under these conditions, reduced precipitation and runoff resulted in lower amounts of terrigenous organic matter supplied to the basin. Additionally, the drop in water temperature and the warm-affinity of local algae assemblage led to reduced marine productivity. Together, these factors contributed to an overall decrease in organic richness. In contrast, during shifts to warmer and more humid climates, the trend reversed. The contribution of conifers to the floral assemblage diminished, but higher amounts of terrigenous organic matter were transported to the basin due to increased precipitation and runoff. This was accompanied by warmer water temperatures, boosting the productivity of organic-walled microplankton in the marine environment and contributing to greater organic richness.

Difference in rock-breaking characteristics between water-coupling blasting and air-coupling blasting

The water-coupling blasting (WCB) technology has received widespread attention due to its advantages of high efficiency and environmental protection. However, the parameters of WCB in practical engineering are generally determined based on the experience and standards of air-coupling blasting (ACB), leading to poor blasting effects and wastage of explosive energy. The study focuses on comparing the rock-breaking effects of shock waves and explosive gases between WCB and ACB to offer insights for optimizing the design of WCB. Firstly, the stress field in blasting with different coupling mediums was calculated. Then, the shock failure characteristics of rocks between WCB and ACB were analyzed. The results show that the radius of shock failure zones decreases with the increasing decoupling coefficient in WCB and ACB. On this basis, a model for calculating the shock failure range in WCB and ACB was proposed. This model can be utilized to estimate the percentage of fine-grained stone in the two types of blasting. Further, a method for distinguishing between the rock-breaking effects of shock waves and explosive gases was proposed based on the numerical simulation results of blasting damage. A comparative analysis between WCB and ACB on the rock-breaking volume by shock waves and gases was conducted. The results indicate that the failure volumes of rocks induced by shock waves and gases in WCB are 1.4–2.1 times greater than those in ACB, with a decoupling coefficient ranging from 1.26 to 1.71. Finally, a method for determining the charging structure in WCB was discussed, which has been preliminarily validated by field tests. The findings can help regulate rock-breaking effects in blasting by rationally selecting coupling mediums and charging constructions.

‘’Geological characterization of a potential CO2 storage play in the Gela offshore (southern Sicily) and the role of a gravitational slide’’

In a context where European policies mandating a 55% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030, Carbon Capture Storage (CCS) presents a viable solution for achieving substantial emissions cuts. Identifying existing and new potential sites for CCS in offshore southern Sicily is crucial to meeting this goal.The Gela offshore region is predominantly characterized by the Gela Thrust System (GTS) and its associated Gela Foredeep (GF), a narrow (less than 20 km) and elongated (approximately 100–120 km) depozone that comprises the thicker Plio-Pleistocene sandy sediments of the offshore Sicilian sector. This area is covered by the Gela Slide, a 1500 km2 gravitational slide.The potential of Plio-Pleistocene clastic deposits in this regionfor CCS implementation has not been previously explored. In this study, we investigated a potential caprock-reservoir system covering around 840 km2 in the Gela offshore area. Our analysis involved interpreting key horizons from a dense grid of 2D seismic reflection profiles, conducting well-to-seismic tie analysis and developing a refined velocity model.The study reveals a promising storage play within the foredeep basin-filling deposits. This potential storage play consists of Lower Pleistocene foredeep turbidite sands of Sabbie di Irene Fm. (reservoir) and of the Middle-Upper Pleistocene pelitic deposits of the Argo Fm. (primary seal). Additionally, the basal shear level of the Gela Slide has been investigated as a potential secondary seal. Analyzing its extent, age, and interaction with the GTS offers valuable insights into the relationships between tectonics and sedimentation, which could lead to the identification of suitable sealing layers for CCS purposes.This study thus provided new data on the thickness, depth, facies and rock volumes of the main reservoir and seals, highlighting their potential suitability for CCS applications.

Space and time distribution of seismic source energy at Campi Flegrei, Italy through the last unrest phase (1.1.2000–31.12.2023)

We describe the space-time pattern of seismicity occurring on Campi Flegrei Caldera (CFC), Italy, where ground deformations and seismicity represent the drivers of its current bradyseismic crisis, well known and extensively studied at an international level. In detail we consider the seismicity in the time interval starting on 1.1.2000 and ending on 31.12.2023. We revise the statistics of the earthquake occurrence, focusing at possible precursory time changes of the b-parameter of the Gutenberg and Richter (G&R b−value) distribution and at the time distribution of the total seismic moment inside any swarm. To estimate the G&R b−value we use a Monte Carlo method instead of the ordinary Least Squares or Maximum likelihood methods, to easily measure the uncertainty on the b−value taking into account uncertainties on the magnitude estimates. Results show that G&R a−value and b−value calculated for cumulative and discrete distributions of Mw, the moment-magnitude, and Md, the so-called duration-magnitude, are the same inside the uncertainties; a−value and b−value for Md are significantly different from the same parameters estimated for Mw, being b−value for Mw close to the value of 1.0 and b−value for Md close to 0.8. The “bounded” G&R distribution fits the data yielding a−value and b−value close to those for the unbounded distribution. The mean annual rate of exceedance, calculated for the entire catalogue, results to be 0.033±0.015 (years−1) corresponding to a return period of 30±14 years for Mw=4.5. The time dependence of G&R b-parameter show a b−value time pattern characterized by variations slightly outside 1-σ uncertainty bar, tending to the value of 1 approaching present. As evidenced by several past studies, earthquakes in CFC occur in space-time clusters, with a mean time duration of 1 day. We selected the swarms with a selection algorithm, based on the joint estimation of inter-arrival times and inter-event distance for the consecutive event couples. The plot of the event number in each cluster vs the time of occurrence, clearly show that in CFC the number of cluster occurrences and the event number in each cluster accelerates during time starting from 2010. The time-pattern of the total seismic moment in each cluster shows that, contrarily to the event number, there is no evident striking increase of the total swarm moment as a function of time.We also consider distribution of the Energy Space Density of the CFC earthquakes, ESD. This quantity shows a clearly visible enlargement of the fractured rock volumes in the last 15 months, toward West, at a depth around 3000 m below sea level. The most fractured zone coincides with the greatest contrasts in seismic attenuation.The present study confirms that the current unrest phase is still ongoing, with an enlargement of the rock fracturing zone which extends southward and westward as compared with that measured 22 months before.

Microwave-assisted TBM cutter for efficient hard rock fracturing in high stress environments

Elucidating the effects and fundamental mechanisms of microwave-assisted mechanical excavation under high initial stress conditions is of paramount importance for enhancing the efficiency of deep resource extraction. In this study, indentation experiments were conducted on microwave-damaged rock under initial stress conditions using a tunnel boring machine (TBM) for the first time. By integrating acoustic emission, digital image correlation, and the discrete element method, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted effects of microwave irradiation and initial stress on rock fracturing. The rock-breaking efficiency was evaluated based on the volume of broken rock and the energy consumption. The indentation failure of the sample can be divided into three stages: microfracture closure, elastic deformation, and unstable crack propagation. The microwave irradiation reduced the peak load during the indentation process and simultaneously reduced the brittleness of the specimen. The experimental and simulation results jointly demonstrated the existence of an initial stress threshold in the rock fracturing process. When the initial stress is below the threshold, it suppresses the extension of rock fractures, which is unfavorable for rock fragmentation. When the initial stress exceeds the threshold, stress-induced rock failure occurs, which promotes rock fragmentation. A notable observation is that microwave irradiation alters the initial stress threshold of the rock, where a higher microwave power correlates with a lower initial stress threshold. This indicates that the optimal parameters for microwave equipment must be reconsidered when the initial stress changes. Methods for optimizing rock breakage at initial stress were suggested and examined.

Predicting the Representative Elementary Volume by determining the evolution law of the convergence cone

In order to characterise a rock formation prior to subsurface operations, it is required to find a microscale rock volume for which the homogenised property does not fluctuate when the size of the sample is increased; the Representative Elementary Volume (REV). Its determination usually comes at the cost of a large number of simulations, making it overall a computationally expensive process. Therefore, many scientific studies have been dedicated to optimising the process of finding REV. Using statistical numerical methods, it is shown that the fluctuation of the effective property corresponds overall to a cone-like shape convergence. We suggest determining the generic evolution law of the cone of convergence, which can be used to predict the size of the REV and the effective physical property. This study is based on simulations of Stokes flow through idealised microstructures from which the permeability is upscaled. By tracing and plotting the convergence of permeability for multiple samples, the full cone of convergence appears. The cone shows exponential growth and decay, converging towards the effective permeability of the microstructure. By fitting a log-normal distribution on the collected data points, we show that the generic evolution law of the cone of convergence can always be described with two parameters, independently of the porosity. We show that the determined law of the cone also applies to real microstructures, despite the presence of natural heterogeneities. The new method allows us to reduce the computational costs of finding all characteristics related to REV by simulating several subsamples rather than the full-sized sample, unlocking thereby high-resolution samples which are often too computationally expensive. The use of a statistical model provides quantification of the precision level we can obtain on the REV determination.

Improving the re-use potential of reactive waste rock using sieving: a laboratory geochemical study

Stockpiles containing sulfide minerals are subject to oxidation reactions when exposed to atmospheric conditions, which can result in the formation of acid mine drainage (AMD). Reactive waste rock has limited re-use potential due to the contamination risk associated with the generated drainage water. The re-use of reactive waste rock could lead to a significant reduction in the volume of waste rock as it mitigates the environmental impact of mine waste deposition. Acid mine drainage generation rate depends on sulfide weathering kinetics which are controlled by many parameters such as the mineralogy and the particle size. Fine fractions of waste rock have higher specific surface areas and degree of liberation of sulfides, resulting in greater reactivity than the coarse fractions. The objective of this research was therefore to evaluate the potential of re-use by controlling particle size using the sieving method. Two different potentially acid-generating waste rocks were divided into six fractions and subjected to both static and kinetic tests. Prediction of the geochemical behavior using static test did not consider the liberation of the minerals, and the long-term prediction was therefore overestimated. Results of the kinetic columns showed there was less oxidation of the sulfide minerals in the coarse fractions than in the fine fractions. Additionally, the distribution of sulfidic minerals and neutralizing minerals with particle size is influencing the potential of the re-use of the reactive waste rock.

Geochemical and isotopic features of the Early Cretaceous volcanism of the Torey Volcanic Field (Eastern Transbaikalia, Russia) as a record of the transition from pyroxenite to eclogite mantle source

The Mesozoic magmatic activation in Central and Northeast Asia resulted in the formation of a large volume of volcanic rocks with diverse compositions. The most dramatic compositional change occurred at the end of the Early Cretaceous, when mainly alkaline basaltic lavas began to erupt after subalkaline differentiated lavas. The nature of crustal and mantle processes that led to this change in volcanism remains unclear. The Torey Volcanic Field (TVF) of Eastern Transbaikalia (Russia) demonstrates a similar compositional change. Therefore, the TVF is crucial to studying the cause of the difference in geochemical and isotopic signatures of the Mesozoic volcanism in Central and Northeast Asia.TVF belongs to the northeastern end of the Eastern Mongolia Volcanic Area (EMVA). Like other volcanic fields of the EMVA, TVF formed in two stages: early (∼121–129 Ma) and late (∼101–119 Ma). The TVF is composed of subalkaline and alkaline basaltic trachyandesites – trachyandesites. All TVF rocks are characterized by negative Ti and Sr anomalies and positive Ba and Pb anomalies. Compared to the late TVF rocks, the early TVF rocks have distinct negative Ta and Nb anomalies and are highly enriched in light rare earth elements relative to heavy rare earth elements. TVF rocks have the following isotopic characteristics: 87Sr/86Sr(t) = 0.70477–0.70540, εNd(t) = − 0.9 – +2.4, 206Pb/204Pb(t) = 17.9–18.4, and 207Pb/204Pb(t) = 15.5–15.6. However, older rocks mainly have higher εNd(t) values and 206Pb/204Pb(t) and 207Pb/204Pb(t) ratios.Geochemical and isotopic data of samples suggest that the TVF formed by melting in the continental metasomatized lithospheric mantle (CMLM). Phlogopite-amphibole-rutile-bearing pyroxenite veins played a major role in the formation of older rocks. Eclogite, represented by the recycled oceanic crust or the buried lower continental crust, was dominant in the source of younger rocks. The common source for both groups of the TVF rocks was metasomatized hydrous peridotite.Lithospheric extension and subsequent asthenospheric upwelling led to melting in the CMLM and the formation of the TVF. At the early stage of the volcanism, melting occurred at relatively low temperatures where amphibole, phlogopite, and rutile were stable. Due to ongoing lithosphere extension, the melting of eclogite occurred at a higher temperature and/or lower pressure at the late stage of the volcanism.

Damage mechanism of rock induced by microcrack evolution: A multi-dimensional perspective

This paper investigated the multi-dimensional and multi-scale damage mechanisms of rocks employing Discrete Element Method (DEM) numerical tests, macroscopic damage models, microscopic damage models, and Acoustic Emission (AE) tests. The study analyzed the correlation between the number of microcracks and AE accumulative ring-down count, established a macroscopic damage evolution equation representing rock volume strain, and explored the mechanisms of microscopic damage evolution. The impact of confining pressure and initial microcracks on rock damage characteristics, the relationship between crack volume strain and macroscopic damage evolution, and the effects of different crack types on microscopic damage evolution were discussed. Key findings include: 1) The DEM incorporating gapped contacts can effectively assess the impact of initial microcrack volume on compaction deformation. Concurrently, the consistency observed between the number of microcracks in DEM and the AE accumulative ring-down count aptly characterizes the failure trend. 2) Macroscopic damage is quantitatively derivable through microcrack enumeration, with the noteworthy observation that microcracks undergo substantial development preceding the volumetric expansion of the rock. Consequently, the evolution of macroscopic damage can be aptly described as a piecewise exponential function relative to rock volume strain. 3) Microcracks manifest in two forms: tension and shear, and the evolution of microscopic damage is intricately linked to the type of microcracks, thus prompting a comprehensive consideration of the microscopic damage induced by different microcrack types. This multi-dimensional exploration enhances our understanding of the dynamic processes underlying rock damage at both macroscopic and microscopic levels.

Regolith-Hosted Rare Earth Element Mineralization in the Esperance Region, Western Australia: Major Characteristics and Potential Controls

A number of regolith-hosted REE occurrences have recently been discovered in the Esperance region in southern Western Australia. This paper summarizes major characteristics of REE mineralization and discusses contributing factors and potential controls. The main aim is to explain why there is a lack of highly sought-after ion-adsorption-clay-type REE deposits across the region despite the presence of the regolith-hosted REE mineralization on a regional scale. Local mineralization mostly occurs as continuous flat-lying enrichment “blankets” within the residual regolith developed over Archaean–Proterozoic granite gneisses and granitoids with elevated REE content. The enriched horizon is commonly located in the lower saprolite and saprock and is accompanied by an overlying REE-depleted zone. This distribution pattern, together with the data on HREE fractionation and the presence of the supergene REE minerals, indicates chemogenic type enrichment formed by supergene REE mobilization into groundwater, downward transport, and accumulation in the lower part of the weathering profile. Residual REE accumulation processes due to bulk rock volume and mass reduction during weathering also contribute to mineralization. It is proposed that climate and groundwater chemistry are the critical regional controls on the distribution of REEs in the weathering profile and on their speciation in the enrichment zone. Cenozoic aridification of climate in southwest Australia heavily overprinted pre-existing REE distributions in the weathering profile. Acidic (pH &lt; 4), highly saline groundwaters intensely leached away any relatively weakly bound, adsorbed or colloidal REE forms, moving them downward. Dissolved REEs precipitated as secondary phosphates in neutral to alkaline environment at lower Eh near the base of the weathering profile forming the supergene enrichment zone. Low denudation rates, characteristic of areas of low relief under the arid climate, are favourable for the preservation of the existing weathering profiles with REE mineralization.

Exploring the use of zwitterionic liquids for hydrogen desorption and release from calcite rock oil reservoirs. A theoretical study

A theoretical model is presented to describe the processes of release and desorption of molecular hydrogen from the depths of calcite rock oil fields via surfactants such as zwitterionic liquids. This model is based on molecular mechanics and dynamics, for which we built a supercell with a calcite crystalline unit cell in order to model the {1,0,4} surface and volume of the calcite rock; 42 H2 molecules adsorbed and interacting strongly with the calcite surface stone were analyzed in this work; the effect of crude oil is simulated with an asphaltene macromolecule model. Finally, a branched geminal zwitterionic liquid (ZL) molecule is applied to initiate the process of hydrogen desorption and release. The aqueous medium of the oil field is simulated by the dielectric constant of water. The most stable molecules were obtained using forcite computational code. While the interaction energies were calculated by classical molecular mechanics using Dreiding force field. The dynamics of the H2 desorption and release process from calcite rock of oil well is studied using the classical molecular dynamics. The purpose of the work is to theoretically demonstrate that ZL substances are capable of releasing and desorb hydrogen from the calcite surface in the depths of oil fields. The results indicate that ZL polar groups form cation-π interactions with the asphaltene benzene rings structure, and that, the carbonated chains of the former trap the latter to release molecular hydrogen. Finally, the aqueous medium desorbs hydrogen from the calcite surface and transports it to the surface of the oil field.

Multiscale discrete fracture network modelling of shallow-water carbonates: East Agri Valley Basin, Southern Italy

We investigate the multiscale geometrical and dimensional properties of fracture and fault networks crosscutting Lower Jurassic to Cretaceous shallow-water carbonate rocks. The carbonates are exposed along the flanks of the Viggiano Mt., on the eastern side of the High Agri Valley Basin of southern Italy. Furthermore, we employ the results of field and digital structural analyses to derive the input parameters for subsequent Discrete Fracture Network modelling (DFN) of geocellular volumes whose dimension and architecture resemble those of the investigated sites. DFN modelling is carried out for geocellular volumes representing the studied bed packages (5m-side volumes), outcrops (50m-side volumes), and reservoir-scale carbonate cliffs (500m-side volumes). Notably, modelling is obtained considering the minimum mechanical aperture value obtained in the field for porosity computations and theoretical values of fracture hydraulic aperture for permeability computations. This is because the mechanical aperture values and roughness profiles collected in the field along single fractures are unreliable due to weathering and localized karst-related dissolution. Our findings reveal that a scale-dependent geometry characterizes the Cretaceous carbonates over three orders of magnitude. These results support previously published data, and contrast with those obtained for the Lower Jurassic carbonates, which suffer of some bias due to the quality of the exposures. After DFN modelling, we show that the amount of computed fracture porosity is mainly due to the SB and NSB fractures, and that equivalent permeability is greater within faulted rock volumes. In terms of horizontal permeability, which is the most reliable result after DFN modelling, we document near isotropic horizontal permeability ellipses at all scales of observations. At individual outcrops, we note that the permeability ellipses are elongated parallel to the dominant fault sets that denotes how localized strain affects the directionality of fluid flow. Finally, we summarize the original data in a conceptual model illustrating the modalities of meteoric fluid infiltration through the vadose zone, and then subsequent horizontal flow in the phreatic zone present within the fracture carbonates at shallow depths.

Sea level controls on Ediacaran-Cambrian animal radiations.

The drivers of Ediacaran-Cambrian metazoan radiations remain unclear, as does the fidelity of the record. We use a global age framework [580-510 million years (Ma) ago] to estimate changes in marine sedimentary rock volume and area, reconstructed biodiversity (mean genus richness), and sampling intensity, integrated with carbonate carbon isotopes (δ13Ccarb) and global redox data [carbonate Uranium isotopes (δ238Ucarb)]. Sampling intensity correlates with overall mean reconstructed biodiversity >535 Ma ago, while second-order (~10-80 Ma) global transgressive-regressive cycles controlled the distribution of different marine sedimentary rocks. The temporal distribution of the Avalon assemblage is partly controlled by the temporally and spatially limited record of deep-marine siliciclastic rocks. Each successive rise of metazoan morphogroups that define the Avalon, White Sea, and Cambrian assemblages appears to coincide with global shallow marine oxygenation events at δ13Ccarb maxima, which precede major sea level transgressions. While the record of biodiversity is biased, early metazoan radiations and oxygenation events are linked to major sea level cycles.