Vocational Education And Training System Research Articles

Vocational education and the revitalisation of manufacturing in the United States

Manufacturing in advanced open economies has experienced significant disruption. Rapid technological change, outsourcing and off shoring have beset manufacturing resulting in a general and steady decline in manufacturing employment. Despite this turbulence, there remains a strong nostalgia for manufacturing resulting in frequent public policy discussion about how best to revitalise the industry. A popular view is that a strong manufacturing industry relies upon an equally strong vocational, education and training (VET) system to provide requisite skill needs. Given the dramatic pace of change in the manufacturing industry do such arguments still hold true? This paper considers this question through an examination of what the revitalisation of US manufacturing means for employment and skills needs and the extent to which US’s decentralised and largely eroded VET system serves as a barrier to the industry’s revitalisation. Drawing upon a mixed method approach that includes primary and secondary data collected in three US cities, the paper argues that the focus on needing to have a strong VET system overlooks the emergence of flexible micro-skill ecosystems that evolve to address local skill needs. These micro skill eco-systems open the prospects for skills and training innovations to meet changing workforce needs in a changing industry.

Adult literacy and liberal-progressive pedagogy: Australian contexts

This article explores adult literacy pedagogy in the Australian vocational education and training (VET) sector which has long provided most adult literacy programmes. We draw on semi-structured interviews with a small group of eight teachers undertaken in 2005 as part of a project on the social capital outcomes of adult literacy programmes. Through highlighting various elements of student-centred pedagogy, the aim is to demonstrate what is commonly referred to as liberal-progressive pedagogy. We discuss how some educators in this pedagogical tradition have incorporated critical literacy, while others have critiqued it as largely accommodating the status quo. Since the mid-1990s however, the field of adult literacy in VET has been increasingly colonised by neo-liberal ideology which sees literacy equated with human capital. Consequently, adult literacy pedagogy in VET in recent times fits within an industry-dominated, competency-based and nationally accredited VET system in which, we argue, the curriculum provides few spaces for liberal-progressive pedagogy. As teachers express their concerns at the possible demise of liberal-progressive pedagogy in adult literacy in VET, it is timely to reflect on its key elements and its value for social justice.

Nám í skóla og á vinnustað: Viðhorf og reynsla sveina, kennara og meistara af tvískiptu kerfi löggiltra iðngreina

Markmið rannsóknarinnar var að skoða hvernig nám í tvískiptu kerfi löggiltra iðngreina fer fram á Íslandi, nánar tiltekið hvort samfella sé í skipulagi námsins og samhengi milli námsins í skóla og á vinnustað. Tekin voru viðtöl við sveina, kennara og meistara (átta í hverjum hóp) í fjórum iðngreinum. Niðurstöður benda til þess að tvískipta kerfið sé að miklu leyti rekið eins og tvö samhliða námskerfi og ekki sé nægilega hugað að því að námið myndi samfellda heild. Samskipti eru óformleg og ábyrgð á samræmingu virðist hvergi vera skilgreind. Einnig sýndu niðurstöður að styrkleikar námsins í skólanum eru veikleikar námsins á vinnustað og öfugt, og því getur verið erfitt að tryggja gæði námsins í heild. Tvískipta kerfið í löggiltum iðngreinum ætti að geta boðið upp á góða heildstæða þjálfun en víða þarf að lagfæra fyrirkomulag til að tryggja gæði og samfellu náms. Rannsóknarverkefnið var styrkt af Mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneytinu í gegnum verkefnið Nám er vinnandi vegur og af Rannsóknarsjóði Háskóla Íslands.

Closing the Skills-Jobs Gap: Russia and China Compared

Around the world employers complain of shortages of skilled workers. Meantime, educational and training institutions often function as “bridges to nowhere.” This has implications for both social and economic development. When VET systems are ineffective, they either turn out individuals with skills that are poorly matched to the demands of the labor market, or replicate existing social divisions between rich and poor. Economic inequality, both cross-sectional and spatial, undermines the ability of educational and skill-forming institutions to equalize opportunities for young people to acquire skills usable in the labor market. This bifurcates society between a low-wage, low-skill, often informal employment sector, and a higher-skill, higher-wage sector. This problem has grown more acute everywhere as a result of automation and globalization. For this reason, experts and policy-makers around the world have called for upgrading the quality and effectiveness of vocational education and training (VET), in particular by encouraging closer cooperation between employers and schools. They seek to adapt elements of the German and other continental systems where apprenticeships are the most common pathway leading from school to jobs. Building firm-school partnerships requires overcoming two sets of collective action dilemmas, however: coordinating the interests of firms around setting professional standards and curricular goals, and establishing cooperation between employers and schools. The paper argues that cooperative arrangements vary along two dimensions: the “breadth” of collaboration by schools and firms, i.e. how many firms and schools pool their efforts to upgrade VET; and the “depth” of commitment, that is, how costly is the joint commitment by firms and schools to VET. The evidence suggests that there is typically a trade-off between deepening and broadening. The paper compares China and Russia — two large, relatively decentralized countries with different economic systems — with respect to current efforts to close the gap between skills and jobs. It draws conclusions about the nature of the circumstances under which reforms are likely to result in greater deepening or broadening of cooperation. The paper argues that the formation of effective institutions for resolving collective dilemmas result from government initiatives mobilizing existing capacities to respond to challenges in the external environment.

The modularisation approach of work-based VET in Scotland

The issue of modularising vocational education and training (VET) systems has been the subject of heated debate in many European countries. In particular, in Scotland the use of modules within the curriculum has been seen as either restrictive or liberating depending upon the theoretical stance taken. At a more pragmatic level modularisation of VET has been regarded as one facet of a broader strategy to modernise training systems. Indeed, a strategy that has resulted in significant changes at the system level in VET, with a consequent impact at the institutional and practitioner levels. These discussions on modularisation have been on going in Scotland since the mid-1980s and are still of relevance today. However, rather interestingly this initial enthusiasm in Scotland for modular approaches has waned slightly and been replaced by a degree of scepticism. The work of Professor David Raffe and his colleagues at Edinburgh University has been instrumental in shaping the debate about modularisation. In particular, the conceptual contribution based upon the notion of ‘institutional and intrinsic logic’ and ‘institutional diversity’ has been very helpful. David acted as an advisor to our modularisation project with CEDEFOP and repeatedly reminded us of the need to collect data on implementation studies, with a particular comparative focus. This article will do just that, building upon a distinctive theoretical framework we will explore how modularisation has impacted on the work-based Scottish VET curriculum. Fortunately, we have substantial data on this based upon the example of a ‘mature’ VET system that has a long history of using modular based curriculum. Our findings will illustrate how modular structures can work towards both an expansive and restrictive notion of learning and assessment.

‘Diversion or safety net?’ Institutions and public opinion on vocational education and training

Vocational education and training (VET) has been described in the sociological literature as a mixed blessing. On one hand, vocational qualifications facilitate the school-to-work transitions of youth (safety net function of VET); on the other hand, placement into vocational tracks dissuades students from attending higher education (diversion function of VET). In this study, I analyse whether VET is perceived to function as a safety net and/or a diversion route by the public at large. VET systems greatly vary across countries with regard to their perceived prestige, the involvement of social partners in the provision of training and the certification of occupational skills. Thus, I focus on whether perceptions of VET vary systematically across countries. Using Eurobarometer data from 2011, I show that in countries with occupationally oriented VET systems, which provide work-based training in the form of apprenticeships, both the safety net and diversion functions are recognized as distinctive aspects of VET. Although public perceptions of the safety net function do not vary across education groups, the analyses show that highly educated individuals are less likely than the other education groups to suggest vocational education as an option, even when they do recognize its role as a safety net. This study contributes to our understanding of the micro-level mechanisms that underlie the formation of educational preferences across social groups.

Between vocational education and training centres and companies: study of their relations under the regional innovation system approach

ABSTRACTIn the current context of economic crisis, the European Union seeks to promote the integration of the vocational education and training system (VET) system and foster greater cooperation between this system and enterprises. Education and innovation are part of the answer to achieve this goal. This research explores the relationship between the VET centres and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and what aspects of that relationship could be improved. Methodologically, it combines case studies of VET centres in relation to local SMEs and the use of a survey to SMEs in two industrialised Spanish regions. The paper examines, in the context of the regional innovation system approach, how the local environment and the characteristics of local actors are crucial to understanding the level of interaction between the VET system and companies, and the contributions of the former to the innovation system of the regions.

The VET system and industrial SMEs: the role of employees with VET qualifications in innovation processes

Reforms of the vocational education and training (VET) system in Spain are committed to a closer relationship between the VET system and companies’ needs. One of these needs is for a greater contribution of the VET system to innovation in companies, especially SMEs, which have limited resources to innovate. This contribution could materialise through a closer relationship between VET centres and SMEs, and also through a greater participation of employees with VET qualifications in innovation in SMEs. This article examines the role of these employees in SME innovation processes. We present the results of a survey of industrial SMEs in two Spanish industrial regions with high levels of experimental cooperation between VET centres and SMEs. The results point to the existence of obstacles to this participation. However, other factors that enable greater participation of this employee profile in SME innovation were also observed.

Should I stay or should I switch? An analysis of transitions between modes of vocational education and training

How established is the horizontal permeability between modes of vocational education and training (VET) in Switzerland? Formally encouraged by the Swiss law on VET, horizontal permeability refers to transitions across VET modes, i.e. between dual and school-based VET. This paper first discusses why horizontal permeability is indeed relevant and then empirically examines the horizontal permeability of the Swiss VET system for a given occupation – commercial VET. The latter is the largest VET domain in Switzerland and, importantly, a domain in which school-based VET is well established. The empirical analysis uses panel data following a cohort for over 10 years in the Canton of Geneva. Results show that going from school-based to dual VET within commercial VET increases chances to earn a qualification, however students changing modes lose half a year in the process. These findings suggest that, at least in commercial VET, horizontal permeability is only partial.

Управление системой СПО: от бюджетной зависимости к модели государственно- частного партнерства

The article describes changes in financing and management of vocational education and training (VET) system in post-Soviet period. It is demonstrated that the transfer of VET-organizations to the regional level was due to the disintegration of the Soviet system of planning. Within the process VET system transfer to the regional level, the ratio of federal/regional financing was significantly changed. The share of expenditure of consolidated budgets of the Russian regions for VET-education has increased steadily against the background of the simultaneous reduction in federal level funding. During the last 15 years the share of expenditure on vocational education in the overall structure of public expenditure on education was rapidly decreasing. As affected of 2008 crisis and deficit of regional budgets, the Federal Program for the Development of Education 2011-2015 played an important role in the process of updates material and technical basis. Another crucial effect of Program consist in expansion of private-public partnership model in VET system.

Challenges of a cross-national computer-based test adaptation

In an increasingly globalized world, the call for internationally comparable competence measurements has emerged. After several international studies on pre-college education, the focus has shifted to international assessments of vocational education and training (VET). VET researchers in Germany developed a computer-based test (ALUSIM) that measures the competence of German apprentices in internationally defined core commercial areas. Our own study deals with the adaptation of this test to Switzerland and a discussion of the challenges involved, with the aim of providing guidance for future adaptations. More specifically, despite commonalities between the German and Swiss VET systems, it is necessary to examine whether the contents and technical aspects of ALUSIM are appropriate for Swiss conditions in order to ensure validity and evidence based on test content. Several methods were used to examine the criteria context, construct, and IT components of the German computer-based test ALUSIM in order to successfully adapt it for Swiss commercial VET. To this end we first analyzed and compared the German and Swiss commercial VET systems and commercial curricula (context) to assess whether the tasks of the test were also embedded in the Swiss curriculum and whether any specific Swiss commercial contents were not represented by the test. Second, we interviewed experts in the commercial area to learn more about representative commercial job requirements (construct). Finally, we interviewed apprentices and tested our initial adaptation of ALUSIM to the Swiss context in order to assess the test’s IT requirements. The analysis revealed similarities between the German and Swiss VET and the construct ‘commercial competence’. However, commercial work conditions and cultural characteristics differ between these countries and lead to different job requirements. Therefore, only a subset of ALUSIM tasks is valid for the construct ‘commercial competence’ in Switzerland. Thus, the addition of further tasks for Switzerland would more validly represent the construct ‘commercial competence’. Moreover, IT components need to be adjusted because the technical implementation represents the measured construct. The proceedings and findings of our adaptation study imply that context, construct, and IT components need to be analyzed before doing adaptations. Even when dealing with countries with a similar context such as comparable educational system and language, it is necessary to carefully examine and test an adaptation in advance. Therefore, creating a successful and internationally comparable adaptation is admittedly possible but challenging, costly and time-consuming.

Governance Dynamics and the Application of the Multilevel Governance Approach in Vocational Education and Training (VET) in the European Neighbourhood Countries: the case of the ENPI South region

AbstractThis article analyses moves towards good multilevel governance approaches in Vocational Education and Training (VET) as an effective way to improve VET policy making in transition and developing countries, focusing on the Southern Neighbourhood of the EU (ENPI South). The centralised approaches in public administration and to VET governance still prevail in this region.The new modes of governance applied by the EU in the policy area of education and training are based on the Open Method of Coordination (OMC). They are a source of inspiration to improve VET governance, taking into account the complexity of VET policies and systems. According to current European and international experiences, the most effective, relevant and attractive VET models and systems are demand‐driven. They rely on the effective and accountable participation of both state (national/local public actors) and non‐state VET stakeholders (e.g. employers, sectoral actors, unions) in decision‐making and policy implementation processes. This could also pave the way towards self‐governed and performance‐based VET provider institutions which would give quicker responses to rapidly changing labour market skills, competences and qualification needs. Thus, this means putting in practice more and better inclusion and effective cooperation and coordination of regional and local voices of VET actors and developing stronger social partnerships to engage employers, unions and civil society in shaping and investing in skills development.Furthermore, the role of methodological tools for VET governance is not only to provide an analytical ground to capture data and structure further policy advice. These tools can also be used as ice‐breakers to improve collaboration, inclusiveness, multi‐participation and trust‐building among policy makers as they work together on very sensitive issues such as reviewing country VET governance models, modes and institutional arrangements, and/or planning policy thinking and/or learning for implementing coordination mechanisms for VET policy making. The European Training Foundation (ETF) has implemented a methodology to map, analyse and self‐assess good multilevel governance in VET, inspired by how EU governance soft tools in education and training are being used. This methodology has been applied to the Governance for Employability in the Mediterranean (GEMM) project in the ENPI South region, which is a regional project implemented by the ETF and financed by the European Commission's Directorate General for Neighbourhood and Enlargements Negotiations (NEAR).

Patching bits won’t fix vocational education in Australia – a new model is needed

Australia’s vocational education and training (VET) qualifications comprise units of competency that are bundled together in qualifications and nestled in training packages developed for particular industries. This article argues that this model is broken and cannot be fixed by patching bits of the system. Competency-based training (CBT) is based on an atomistic ontology that results in the fragmentation of knowledge and the atomisation of skill. CBT underpins a fragmented VET system with thousands of qualifications. It facilitates a market that has resulted in: thousands of private providers; the erosion of technical and further education (TAFE) institutions as the public provider; the transfer of unprecedented amounts of public funding to private profits; and, scandals and rorts. The same atomistic ontology underpins VET qualifications, the VET system and the VET market. The article concludes by briefly discussing an alternative model of qualifications using the capabilities approach.

Examining Barriers to Internationalisation Created by Diverse Systems and Structures in Vocational Education and Training

In a global society, all educational sectors need to recognise internationalism as a core, foundational principle. Whilst most educational sectors are taking up that challenge, vocational education and training (VET) is still being pulled towards the national agenda in terms of its structures and systems, and the policies driving it, disadvantaging those who graduate from VET, those who teach in it, and the businesses and countries that connect with it. This paper poses questions about the future of internationalisation in the sector. It examines whether there is a way to create a VET system that meets its primary point of values to produce skilled workers for the local labour market, while still benefitting those graduates by providing international skills and knowledge, gained from VET institutions that are international in their outlook. The paper examines some of the key barriers created by systems and structures in VET to internationalisation and suggests that the efforts which have been made to address the problem have had limited success. It suggests that only a model which gives freedom to those with a direct vested interest, students, teachers, trainers and employers, to pursue international co-operation and liaison will have the opportunity to succeed.

Training Patterns of German Companies in India, China, Japan and the USA: What Really Works?


 The transfer of vocational education and training (VET) systems is currently the subject of lively international debate, but there has so far been very little documentation of the process or analysis of how such transfers are achieved in practical terms. This paper therefore considers the potential for transferring Germany's "dual" vocational training system to German subsidiaries abroad, specifically in China, India, Japan and the USA. Using the EPRG typology as a theoretical framework, the paper systematises the range of training strategies deployed by German subsidiaries. It analyses the findings of interviews with training officers and Directors of Human Resources in more than 40 German subsidiaries abroad. These interviews show clearly that local factors in the host country exert such a strong influence that it is not possible completely to transfer the German VET system to another country. What is more likely is that an accommodation is reached with local VET structures, local labour market conditions and other socio-cultural features. The findings suggest that policy borrowing in the area of VET is likely to be only partial and will be strongly influenced by the national characteristics of the host country.

Identity strategies in light of a low-prestige occupation: the case of retail apprentices

Occupations differ in their prestige, but little research has examined how workers manage working in a low-prestige occupation. This case study with retail-clerk apprentices in Switzerland uncovers the identity strategies the apprentices employ to help them normalise the situation they find themselves in: they are learning an occupation that is not assumed to require any specific knowledge or skills. We base our arguments on theories about occupational prestige, identity and stigma management, as well as on a qualitative study in VET (vocational education and training) schools. Three identity strategies are dominant among retail-clerk apprentices and are deeply embedded within the retail context and the Swiss apprenticeship programme. First, apprentices embrace ideas of discontinuous careers and lifelong learning, which encourage them to improve their occupational position through mobility within or outside the retail sector. Second, the VET programme builds on apprentices’ consumer interests and encourages their self-valorisation through the prestige of products and shops. Third, apprentices emphasise that retail work is skilled work, a strategy that is consistent with the positive societal perception of the Swiss VET system. These strategies provide insights into how apprentices construct positive occupational identities although they are placed low on the occupational prestige hierarchy.

Access to the Albanian VET System: social, individual and school‐based barriers

AbstractThis article analyses the determinants of access to the VET system in Albania and its impact on the inclusion of young people and vulnerable groups. The VET system often attracts students who have completed the compulsory levels of education with weak academic results. Many come from families with a low level of income and a low education level. Skill development can make a positive contribution to social inclusion and is particularly important for Albania at a time of greater unemployment among young people, lack of proper skills and competences of the labour force, demographic changes, and high levels of emigration. Yet, Albania has the lowest enrolment rate in the vocational education and training (VET) system in the Western Balkans and a variety of factors hinders access to VET schools. This article draws on original research based on in‐depth interviews with national and local actors, school managers and parents, focus groups and structured survey questionnaires with teachers and students at three VET providers in Albania. It finds that social, individual and school‐based factors all place barriers for enrolment of children from disadvantaged backgrounds in the VET system and that this contributes to the wider landscape of social exclusion in Albania.

Agenda‐setting for VET policy in the Western Balkans: employability versus social inclusion

For the last decade, the Western Balkan countries have sought to modernise their vocational education and training (VET) systems, adapting them to the needs of their emerging market economies. Within the framework of the EU accession process, the policy agenda for VET policies has been strongly influenced by a range of international and domestic policy entrepreneurs. This complex policy process has given rise to tension between policies that seek to frame the problem as one of employability and skill mismatch on the one hand and those that frame the problem as a challenge of social inclusion on the other. By examining the VET policy process in the Western Balkans, we show that national policies have been more strongly oriented towards the promotion of employability and the adaptation of VET systems to labour market needs, rather than to policies designed to overcome social exclusion and discrimination. Among the factors driving this economistic view of VET, we underscore the roles of various domestic and international policy entrepreneurs, including ministries in charge of education, employment and social policy, social partners, the European Commission, and bilateral and multilateral donors. We conclude that increased cooperation is needed between international and domestic policy entrepreneurs who favour inclusive education systems in order to place social inclusion higher up on the VET policy agenda.

Stakeholders in the German and Swiss vocational educational and training system

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to compare stakeholders’ roles in Germany and Switzerland when it comes to promoting innovation in the dual apprenticeship model. In both countries, the relevant stakeholders who represent the various occupations and, in a more narrow sense, the social partners, actively shape vocational education and training (VET) reforms. They represent the area of public educational policy, besides governments, political parties and the public, who, in both countries, appreciate the decisive role of apprenticeships for youth education, employment and social stability. Thus, the broad consensus of the relevant stakeholders is crucial in order to keep apprenticeship systems alive. Both countries face challenges related to academisation, which means, that the Gymnasium (high school) and higher education now are even more the first option for parents than in former times. On several levels German and Swiss policy makers try to strengthen VET paying tribute to and trying to cope with these developments.Design/methodology/approach– The paper is situated in the field of comparative VET research. Based on policy documents and findings from research the paper analyses the discourse and perspectives related to VET reforms. The authors deliberately focus on two countries, Germany and Switzerland, which share a great deal of common features in relation to VET, nevertheless developed different measures in order to cope with the pressure of increasing the ratio of students in higher education. The comparative paper looks at the topical reform discourse and taken measures and the specific culture of apprenticeships in the two countries by focusing on those stakeholders, which, besides governments, are crucially involved in the system. The paper draws its insights from the VET policy debate and from both national policy documents and national and international expert publications in the field of VET. A strong focus is given to the emerging new environment of the VET system. Methodologically, the paper draws from an institutional view on VET, which is being discussed broadly in comparative research, since VET systems with a “dual system”, such as the two discussed here, may be categorized as “state-steered market models”, “occupation-based qualifications styles”, “collective skill formation systems” or specific realizations of “transition systems”. All these categories refer to the observation that in these societies it is not the state alone, who defines the structure of the respective VET system, but non-state stakeholders are capable of influencing VET policy and VET reform in a substantial and visible way.Findings– In both countries, Germany and Switzerland, the importance and value of VET is based on an overall consensus, shared by all relevant actors. The basis of this consensus is that the dual system so far successfully opened and should continue to open career paths in industry. Apprenticeships undoubtedly are cornerstones of economic welfare in these countries and can be associated with low youth unemployment rates. A supplementary aspect in the last years however is the political will that VET should also have some kind of link with higher education. Despite some interesting reform measures ambivalences cannot be ignored: against what could be called “academic fallacy” the importance of a highly qualified workforce, trained in non-academic fields, and the future of this kind of skill formation have become major topics and concerns in both societies.Originality/value– This paper is comparing two similar cases, Switzerland and Germany, in VET in order to profile reform alternatives. Furthermore the actors beyond state are highlighted as important element for reform in VET education.

Stakeholders′ conceptions of connecting learning at different sites in two national VET systems

Learning through active participation and engagement in education and workplace settings is a prerequisite for effective professional competence development through Vocational Education and Training (VET). Equally important is that learning from multiple sites and sources needs to be purposefully connected and integrated to construct meaningful knowledge and understandings. The quality of connectivity and learning outcomes is influenced by conceptions of the different actors. The aim of the research reported in this article was to gain an understanding of key stakeholders’ (learners, teachers, trainers and managers/coordinators) conceptions of connections between school-based and work-based learnings which offer the main sources for developing vocational competence, and are the main sites for the enacted and engaged curriculum for VET. We identify and compare conceptions of vocational learning and teaching across education and workplace settings in Swiss and Australian VET actors. Differences and similarities are discussed and implications for VET research and development of teachers and trainers are outlined.