Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity Research Articles

Tailoring explicit and implicit instruction methods to the verbal working memory capacity of students with special needs can benefit motor learning outcomes in physical education

This study examined the effects of explicit versus implicit instructions and feedback methods on motor learning and perceived competence of 9-to 13-year old students with special educational needs practicing a balancing task during physical education. The aim was to test if and how the effects of type of instruction and feedback methods were influenced by students' verbal and visuospatial working memory capacities. The students significantly increased their balancing performance and perceived competence from pre- to posttest, with no differences between groups. The relation between type of instruction and feedback methods and learning outcomes was significantly influenced by verbal working memory capacity, not by visuospatial working memory capacity. Physical education teachers may need to align their instructions with verbal working memory capacity, by providing implicit instructions and feedback methods in students with low verbal working memory capacity and explicit instruction and feedback methods in students with high verbal working memory capacity.

Visuospatial, rather than verbal working memory capacity plays a key role in verbal and figural creativity

Creative idea generation engages complex cognitive functions such as working memory capacity (WMC). The relationship between creativity and WMC has remained inconsistent due to the lack of experimental evidence and the mismatching of WMC tasks and creativity measurements. Therefore, we used both measurements and experiments to explore the effects of WMC on creativity with the matching of task types considered. In Study 1, we conducted multiple measurements to explore the relationship between verbal/visuospatial WMC and verbal/figural creativity and found that participants with higher visuospatial WMC performed better in both types of creativity tasks. Furthermore, we conducted two dual task experiments in Study 2 to explore the causal effects of WMC on creativity. We found only interfering with participants’ visuospatial WMC would significantly decrease their creative performances. Moreover, Study 3 ruled out the potential confounding factor of general attention resources in the visuospatial secondary tasks by using a control dual task experiment. These findings indicated that the creative thinking process is likely to rely on visuospatial processing regardless of the form of the presented information.

Event related spectral perturbations of gesture congruity: Visuospatial resources are recruited for multimodal discourse comprehension

Here we examine the role of visuospatial working memory (WM) during the comprehension of multimodal discourse with co-speech iconic gestures. EEG was recorded as healthy adults encoded either a sequence of one (low load) or four (high load) dot locations on a grid and rehearsed them until a free recall response was collected later in the trial. During the rehearsal period of the WM task, participants observed videos of a speaker describing objects in which half of the trials included semantically related co-speech gestures (congruent), and the other half included semantically unrelated gestures (incongruent). Discourse processing was indexed by oscillatory EEG activity in the alpha and beta bands during the videos. Across all participants, effects of speech and gesture incongruity were more evident in low load trials than in high load trials. Effects were also modulated by individual differences in visuospatial WM capacity. These data suggest visuospatial WM resources are recruited in the comprehension of multimodal discourse.

Eye movements during visual imagery and perception show spatial correspondence but have unique temporal signatures

Eye fixation patterns during mental imagery are similar to those during perception of the same picture, suggesting that oculomotor mechanisms play a role in mental imagery (i.e., the “looking at nothing” effect). Previous research has focused on the spatial similarities of eye movements during perception and mental imagery. The primary aim of this study was to assess whether the spatial similarity translates to the temporal domain. We used recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) to assess the temporal structure of eye fixations in visual perception and mental imagery and we compared the temporal as well as the spatial characteristics in mental imagery with perception by means of Bayesian hierarchical regression models. We further investigated how person and picture-specific characteristics contribute to eye movement behavior in mental imagery. Working memory capacity and mental imagery abilities were assessed to either predict gaze dynamics in visual imagery or to moderate a possible correspondence between spatial or temporal gaze dynamics in perception and mental imagery. We were able to show the spatial similarity of fixations between visual perception and imagery and we provide first evidence for its moderation by working memory capacity. Interestingly, the temporal gaze dynamics in mental imagery were unrelated to those in perception and their variance between participants was not explained by variance in visuo-spatial working memory capacity or vividness of mental images. The semantic content of the imagined pictures was the only meaningful predictor of temporal gaze dynamics. The spatial correspondence reflects shared spatial structure of mental images and perceived pictures, while the unique temporal gaze behavior could be driven by generation, maintenance and protection processes specific to visual imagery. The unique temporal gaze dynamics offer a window to new insights into the genuine process of mental imagery independent of its similarity to perception

Individual differences in visuospatial working memory capacity influence the modality effect

AbstractThe cognitive theory of multimedia learning postulates learning information in a dual‐modality design is more effective than in a single modality, which is known as the modality effect. Research has found that the modality effect supports problem‐solving learning, but not retention‐based learning. This divergence in findings can be explained by the mediating effects of individual differences in visuospatial working memory. The current study confirmed the modality effect, showing superiority of dual‐modality over single modality. Results revealed a significant interaction between visuospatial working memory and modality by retention, but no such interaction was obtained for problem solving. It was found that learners with low visuospatial working memory scored higher on retention in dual modality than these in single modality. Interestingly, no differences were found for learners with high visuospatial working memory on retention in both single‐ and dual‐modality conditions. The findings may explain for whom the modality effect works in relation to retention. Finally, the analysis showed no association between modality conditions and subtypes of cognitive load, that is, extraneous and germane cognitive load.

Allocentric Spatial Memory Performance in a Virtual Reality-Based Task is Conditioned by Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity

Traditionally, the medial temporal lobe has been considered a key brain region for spatial memory. Nevertheless, executive functions, such as working memory, also play an important role in complex behaviors, such as spatial navigation. Thus, the main goal of this study is to clarify the relationship between working memory capacity and spatial memory performance. Spatial memory was assessed using a virtual reality-based procedure, the Boxes Room task, and the visual working memory with the computer-based Change Localization Task. One hundred and twenty-three (n = 123) participants took part in this study. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) revealed a statistically significant relationship between working memory capacity and spatial abilities. Thereafter, two subgroups n = 60, were formed according to their performance in the working memory task (1st and 4th quartiles, n = 30 each). Results demonstrate that participants with high working memory capacity committed fewer mistakes in the spatial task compared to the low working memory capacity group. Both groups improved their performance through repeated trials of the spatial task, thus showing that they could learn spatial layouts independent of their working memory capacity. In conclusion, these findings support that spatial memory performance is directly related to working memory skills. This could be relevant for spatial memory assessment in brain lesioned patients.

Influence of comorbidity on working memory profile in dyslexia and developmental coordination disorder

ABSTRACT Objective Many studies report a deficit in working memory in children with Developmental Dyslexia (DD) and Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) compared to children with Typical Development (TD). In this study, we questioned the working memory profile of children with co-occurring Developmental Dyslexia and Developmental Coordination Disorder (DD-DCD). First, we hypothesized that children with DD would have a more substantial deficit in verbal working memory, while children with DCD would have a more substantial deficit in visuospatial working memory. For the comorbid group, we postulated a deficit in both the verbal and visuospatial domains. Second, we determined whether we could correctly distinguish between the four groups based on their working memory profiles. Method 47 children with DD, 22 children with DCD, 27 children with DD-DCD, and 42 TD children aged from 7.6 to 12.6 years were tested on the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive using the Digit Span and Wechsler’s Block-tapping tests. Results Children with DD had a deficit in verbal working memory including a specific deficit in the phonological loop and children with DCD had a deficit in visuospatial working memory. Comorbid children had poorer performance in verbal working memory (like group with DD) and in visuospatial working memory (like group with DCD). Exploratory cluster analysis resulted in four subgroups: (1) one cluster with good working memory performance made up of most of the TD children; (2) one cluster with a phonological loop deficit mainly made up of the children with DD; (3) one cluster with poor visuospatial working memory capacities mostly made up of the children with DCD (± DD) and (4) one cluster with average performance made up of children from all the groups. Conclusion Our results underline the importance of taking comorbidity into account when testing working memory in children with learning disabilities.

Gesture during math instruction specifically benefits learners with high visuospatial working memory capacity

BackgroundCharacteristics of both teachers and learners influence mathematical learning. For example, when teachers use hand gestures to support instruction, students learn more than others who learn the same concept with only speech, and students with higher working memory capacity (WMC) learn more rapidly than those with lower WMC. One hypothesis for the effect of gesture on math learning is that gestures provide a signal to learners that can reduce demand on working memory resources during learning. However, it is not known what sort of working memory resources support learning with gesture. Gestures are motoric; they co-occur with verbal language and they are perceived visually.MethodsIn two studies, we investigated the relationship between mathematical learning with or without gesture and individual variation in verbal, visuospatial, and kinesthetic WMC. Students observed a videotaped lesson in a novel mathematical system that either included instruction with both speech and gesture (Study 1) or instruction with only speech (Study 2). After instruction, students solved novel problems in the instructed system and transfer problems in a related system. Finally, students completed verbal, visuospatial, and kinesthetic working memory assessments.ResultsThere was a positive relationship between visuospatial WMC and math learning when gesture was present, but no relationship between visuospatial WMC and math learning when gesture was absent. Rather, when gesture was absent, there was a relationship between verbal WMC and math learning.ConclusionProviding gesture during instruction appears to change the cognitive resources recruited when learning a novel math task.

Cortical surface area of the left frontal pole is associated with visuospatial working memory capacity

Working memory, the ability to maintain and manipulate information over seconds, is central to cognition and it is impaired in many clinical populations. However, our knowledge of the structural properties associated with individual variation in visuospatial working memory capacity is currently poor. Across two locations (Stockholm and Oxford), we examined how regional surface area and cortical thickness in frontal and parietal regions were related to visuospatial working memory capacity. We found a negative association between visuospatial working memory capacity and the surface area of the left frontal pole across both locations, and this finding was consistently present in each of the two locations separately. Importantly, this association was specific to (i) the surface area (not cortical thickness), (ii) the left side of the brain, (iii) and the visuospatial rather than the verbal modality. This result reveals a novel and highly specific neurobiological association with visuospatial working memory which could be further explored in studies with a wider range of psychological tests and in clinical populations.

The role of working memory capacity in implicit and explicit sequence learning of children: Differentiating movement speed and accuracy

This study investigated the role of working memory capacity on implicit and explicit motor sequence learning in young children. To this end, a task was utilized that required a gross motor response (flexing the elbow) and that could differentiate between movement speed (i.e., reaction time and movement time) and movement accuracy. Children aged 7–9 years practiced a serial reaction time task that involved the production of a fixed sequence of elbow flexions of prescribed magnitude across two consecutive days. Children in the explicit group were informed about the presence of the sequence and were shown this sequence, while children in the implicit group were not made aware of the sequence. Additionally, children's verbal and visuospatial working memory capacity was assessed. Results of day 1 regarding movement speed revealed no evidence of sequence learning for either group, but movement accuracy results suggested that sequence learning occurred for the implicit group. For both groups, only improvements in movement accuracy were consolidated on day 2, indicating both general and sequence specific learning. Working memory capacity did not correlate with learning in either of the groups. Children in the explicit group accumulated more sequence knowledge compared to children in the implicit group, but this knowledge did not translate to more or better sequence learning. The minimal differences found between the implicit and explicit condition and the absence of a role for working memory capacity add to the increasing evidence that the observed differences between implicit and explicit sequence learning in adults may be less distinct in children.

Reduced deficits observed in children and adolescents with developmental language disorder using proper nonverbalizable span tasks

BackgroundChildren with developmental language disorder (DLD)—previously called Specific Language Impairment (SLI)—often perform poorly in verbal working memory (WM) tasks, but the picture is less clear regarding their visuospatial WM capacity. Recent research has been inconclusive regarding whether visuospatial working memory is impaired in DLD. Additionally, it is still unclear whether the putative disparity of WM performance persists in adolescence. AimsThe aim of the current study was to unveil potential impairments in verbal and visuospatial working memory in DLD by exploring two developmental age groups of French-speaking children and adolescents. MethodsThis study examined verbal and nonverbal short-term and working memory capacity using digit span and Corsi block tasks in twelve children (7–11-year-olds) and twelve adolescents (12-18-year-olds) with developmental language disorder (DLD) in comparison to that in their typically developing peers. ResultsOur findings showed that both children and adolescents with DLD have deficits in storage and processing ability for the verbal domain. However, both the short-term and working memory estimates of immediate capacity for visuospatial information in adolescents with DLD were virtually intact. ConclusionsThese results indicate that both verbal and nonverbal storage and processing capacity are largely modulated by age, suggesting that the children with DLD show virtually intact nonverbal working memory capacity as they reach adolescence.

Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity in the Brain After Working Memory Training in College Students With ADHD: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Objective: ADHD has been associated with persistent problems of working memory. This study investigated the efficacy of an intensive and adaptive computerized working memory treatment (CWMT) at behavioral and neural levels. Method: College students (n = 89; 40 females) with ADHD were randomized into a standard-length CWMT (45 min/session, 25 sessions, n = 29), shortened-length CWMT (15 min/session, 25 sessions, n = 32), and a waitlist group (n = 28). Both CWMT groups received treatment for 5 days a week for 5 weeks. Lab sessions before and after CWMT assessed electroencephalography (EEG) indicators of working memory, behavioral indicators of working memory performance, and ADHD symptomatology. Results: No evidence was found for neural or any other behavioral transfer effects of improvement for the CWMT treatment groups over the active control or waitlist group. Conclusion: Our study does not provide evidence for the benefits of CWMT at neural or behavioral levels.

Mathematics students demonstrate superior visuo-spatial working memory to humanities students under conditions of low central executive processing load

Previous research has demonstrated that working memory performance is linked to mathematics achievement. Most previous studies have involved children and arithmetic rather than more advanced forms of mathematics. This study compared the performance of groups of adult mathematics and humanities students. Experiment 1 employed verbal and visuo-spatial working memory span tasks using a novel face-matching processing element. Results showed that mathematics students had greater working memory capacity in the visuo-spatial domain only. Experiment 2 replicated this and demonstrated that neither visuo-spatial short-term memory nor endogenous spatial attention explained the visuo-spatial working memory differences. Experiment 3 used working memory span tasks with more traditional verbal or visuo-spatial processing elements to explore the effect of processing type. In this study mathematics students showed superior visuo-spatial working memory capacity only when the processing involved had a comparatively low level of central executive involvement. Both visuo-spatial working memory capacity and general visuo-spatial skills predicted mathematics achievement.

Effects of the Phonological Loop of Working Memory on the Productivity of Solving Mathematical and Verbal Tasks in Specialists in Mathematics and the Humanities

The effects of working memory (WM) capacity on mathematical ability are well known. This relationship is seen mainly for the capacity of visuospatial WM, while the capacity of the phonological loop of WM, which is associated with processing sound and speech information, has been suggested to have a minor effect on mathematical ability in adults. Nonetheless, involvement of the language neural networks in mathematical thought remains controversial. We have studied the effects of the capacity of the phonological loop of WM on the rate and correctness of solution of mathematical and verbal tasks in young, healthy, right-handed volunteers who either had higher education or were students at institutions teaching mathematics and humanities. Subjects in the mathematics group (N = 10) solved all tasks with measures of solution correctness (CA) and response time (RT) which were significantly better than values for subjects of the humanities group (N = 10). The capacity of the phonological loop of WM showed no difference between the two groups but had different effects on CA and RT values for tasks in mathematicians and humanities specialists. Spearman correlation analysis for each group separately showed that the capacity of WM had positive effects on CA for all mathematical tasks only in the mathematicians group, where it had no effect on RT, while the reverse tendency was seen in the humanities group. The capacity of WM in the mathematicians group correlated inversely with RT for logical tasks on arithmetic sequences. Our results provide indirect evidence that WM in the verbal domain can influence mathematical ability, especially when tasks require the involvement of logical thought.

Reward motivation and neurostimulation interact to improve working memory performance in healthy older adults: A simultaneous tDCS-fNIRS study

Several studies have evaluated the effect of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the prefrontal cortex (PFC) for the enhancement of working memory (WM) performance in healthy older adults. However, the mixed results obtained so far suggest the need for concurrent brain imaging, in order to more directly examine tDCS effects. The present study adopted a continuous multimodal approach utilizing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to examine the interactive effects of tDCS combined with manipulations of reward motivation. Twenty-one older adults (mean age = 69.7 years; SD = 5.05) performed an experimental visuo-spatial WM task before, during and after the delivery of 1.5 mA anodal tDCS/sham over the left prefrontal cortex (PFC). During stimulation, participants received performance-contingent reward for every fast and correct response during the WM task. In both sessions, hemodynamic activity of the bilateral frontal, motor and parietal areas was recorded across the entire duration of the WM task. Cognitive functions and reward sensitivity were also assessed with standard measures. Results demonstrated a significant impact of tDCS on both WM performance and hemodynamic activity. Specifically, faster responses in the WM task were observed both during and after anodal tDCS, while no differences were found under sham control conditions. However, these effects emerged only when taking into account individual visuo-spatial WM capacity. Additionally, during and after the anodal tDCS, increased hemodynamic activity relative to sham was observed in the bilateral PFC, while no effects of tDCS were detected in the motor and parietal areas. These results provide the first evidence of tDCS-dependent functional changes in PFC activity in healthy older adults during the execution of a WM task. Moreover, they highlight the utility of combining reward motivation with prefrontal anodal tDCS, as a potential strategy to improve WM efficiency in low performing healthy older adults.

Comparing Cognitive Control Performance During Seated Rest and Self-Paced Cycling on a Desk Bike in Preadolescent Children.

Although active workstations, such as desk bikes, have proven to be beneficial for health, there is limited information regarding their effects on children's acute cognitive performance during self-paced exercise. This study used a within-subjects, fully counterbalanced design with a sample of 38 preadolescent children (mean age = 12.50y, SD = 0.62; 43% male), who performed cognitive tests while being seated or while cycling for 45 minutes with a 7-day interval. Effects of using a desk bike were evaluated on cognitive control: verbal and visuospatial working memory capacities were tested, and inhibition was assessed using a modified flanker task. In addition, subjective task experience was explored using self-report measures. Cognitive control performance was not degraded but also not improved with the short-term use of desk bikes. Because of the null effects, there is no direction and magnitude of the outcomes to discuss. These findings suggest that schools can successfully implement desk bikes to increase physical activity and reduce sedentary time among children without compromising cognitive control processes necessary for academic achievement.

Apolipoprotein E Homozygous ε4 Allele Status: A Deteriorating Effect on Visuospatial Working Memory and Global Brain Structure.

Theoretical background: The Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 genotype is known to be one of the strongest single-gene predictors for Alzheimer disease, which is characterized by widespread brain structural degeneration progressing along with cognitive impairment. The ε4 allele status has been associated with brain structural alterations and lower cognitive ability in non-demented subjects. However, it remains unclear to what extent the visuospatial cognitive domain is affected, from what age onward changes are detectable and if alterations may interact with cognitive deficits in major depressive disorder (MDD). The current work investigated the effect of APOE ε4 homozygosity on visuospatial working memory (vWM) capacity, and on hippocampal morphometry. Furthermore, potential moderating roles of age and MDD were assessed.Methods: A sample of n = 31 homozygous ε4 carriers was contrasted with n = 31 non-ε4 carriers in a cross-sectional design. The sample consisted of non-demented, young to mid-age participants (mean age = 34.47; SD = 13.48; 51.6% female). Among them were n = 12 homozygous ε4 carriers and n = 12 non-ε4 carriers suffering from MDD (39%). VWM was assessed using the Corsi block-tapping task. Region of interest analyses of hippocampal gray matter density and volume were conducted using voxel-based morphometry (CAT12), and Freesurfer, respectively.Results: Homozygous ε4 carriers showed significantly lower Corsi span capacity than non-ε4 carriers did, and Corsi span capacity was associated with higher gray matter density of the hippocampus. APOE group differences in hippocampal volume could be detected but were no longer present when controlling for total intracranial volume. Hippocampal gray matter density did not differ between APOE groups. We did not find any interaction effects of age and MDD diagnosis on hippocampal morphometry.Conclusion: Our results point toward a negative association of homozygous ε4 allele status with vWM capacity already during mid-adulthood, which emerges independently of MDD diagnosis and age. APOE genotype seems to be associated with global brain structural rather than hippocampus specific alterations in young- to mid-age participants.

An individual differences investigation of the relationship between visuospatial working memory capacity and inefficient search.

An individual differences investigation of the relationship between visuospatial working memory capacity and inefficient search.

Math Anxiety in Combination With Low Visuospatial Memory Impairs Math Learning in Children.

Math anxiety impairs academic achievements in mathematics. According to the processing efficiency theory (PET), the adverse effect is the result of reduced processing capacity in working memory (WM). However, this relationship has been examined mostly with correlational designs. Therefore, using an intervention paradigm, we examined the effects of math anxiety on math learning. Twenty-five 5th graders underwent seven training sessions of multiplication over the course of 2 weeks. Children were faster and made fewer errors in solving trained problems than untrained problems after learning. By testing the relationship between math anxiety, WM, and math learning, we found that if children have little or no math anxiety, enough WM resources are left for math learning, so learning is not impeded. If they have high math anxiety and high visuospatial WM, some WM resources are needed to deal with math anxiety but learning is still supported. However, if they have high math anxiety and low visuospatial WM capacity, math learning is significantly impaired. These children have less capacity to learn new math content as cognitive resources are diverted to deal with their math anxiety. We conclude that math anxiety not only hinders children’s performance in the present but potentially has long-lasting consequences, because it impairs not only math performance but also math learning. This intervention study partially supports the PET because only the combination of high math anxiety and low WM capacity seems critical for hindering math learning. Moreover, an adverse effect of math anxiety was observed on performance effectiveness (response accuracy) but not processing efficiency (response time).

Motor learning in children with developmental coordination disorder: The role of focus of attention and working memory

Effective motor learning paradigms are essential for children with motor difficulties to enhance their motor skills and facilitate performance in physical activities and in daily life. This study aimed to examine the effect of feedback with an internal or external focus of attention on motor learning of children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (pDCD). In addition, the role of working memory capacity was examined. Children were recruited via physical therapists, who integrated the experimental procedures within therapy sessions. We analyzed data of 25 children between 5 and 11 years old. They practiced a novel motor task of throwing a ‘slingerball’ over three weeks, while receiving feedback with an internal or external focus of attention. Results showed that children improved throwing accuracy regardless of the type of feedback they received. Visuospatial working memory capacity enhanced learning, especially for children receiving feedback with an external focus of attention. These findings corroborate clinical recommendations stating that children with DCD benefit from task specific training and feedback, which is promoted with both foci of attention. However, the findings contrast the expected benefits of practice with an external focus of attention. It highlights that the exact mechanisms and task constraints that influence the learning processes with an internal and external focus among children are not yet understood and warrant further study.