Visual Sequential Memory Research Articles

The Measurement Properties and Factor Structure of the Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills–Revised: Implications for Occupational Therapy Assessment and Practice

The aim of this study was to examine the measurement properties of the Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills-Revised (TVPS-R). A group of 356 typically developing children 5-11 years of age completed the TVPS-R along with three criterion measures. Several of the TVPS-R items had item-total subscale correlation coefficients were lower than the 0.20 correlation criteria. Cronbach's alpha coefficients varied between 0.74 and 0.84 for the seven subscales. The perceptual quotient (PQ) reliability coefficient for the age levels ranged between 0.79 and 0.91. The PQ total group reliability coefficient was 0.96. Results from the principal component analysis indicated that the majority of the TVPS-R items loaded on a dominant first factor. Confirmatory factor analytic models were assessed using four different goodness-of-fit indices. Two of the fit indices supported the unidimensional assumption (RMR and CFI ), while two of the fit indices did not support the TVPS-R one-factor model (chi-square and RMSEA). A unitary motor-free visual-perceptual factor was not found. The TVPS-R PQ should not be used as an overall performance summary score. Of the seven TVPS-R subscales, five can be used with confidence (visual discrimination, visual-spatial relationships, visual-sequential memory, visual figure ground, and visual-closure) whereas the visual memory and visual form constancy [corrected] subscales are not recommended.

Effect of zinc supplementation of pregnant women on the mental and psychomotor development of their children at 5 y of age

A negative effect of prenatal zinc deficiency on brain function has been well established in experimental animals, but this association in humans is controversial. We evaluated the effect of prenatal zinc supplementation on the mental and psychomotor development of 355 children whose mothers participated in a double-blind trial of zinc supplementation that resulted in increased head circumference and birth weight. The children took 6 tests-the Differential Ability Scales, Visual Sequential Memory, Auditory Sequential Memory, Knox Cube, Gross Motor Scale, and Grooved Pegboard tests-at a mean age of 5.3 y. The scores were compared between the children of women who received a daily oral dose of 25 mg Zn during the second half of pregnancy and the children of women who received placebo. There were no differences in the test scores of neurologic development between the 2 groups. We analyzed the scores in 4 subgroups on the basis of maternal body mass index, because the increases in birth weight and head circumference due to the supplementation occurred only in the children of women with a body mass index (in kg/m(2)) < 26.0 in the original trial. No differences in the scores were found between these subgroups. Zinc supplementation of women in the latter half of pregnancy had no effect on the neurologic development of their children at age 5 y. It is not known whether our findings of no positive effect in the population with apparently inadequate zinc nutriture can be readily extrapolated to other populations.

The cerebellum contributes to higher functions during development: evidence from a series of children surgically treated for posterior fossa tumours.

We present data on the intellectual, language and executive functions of 26 children who had undergone surgery for the removal of cerebellar hemisphere or vermal tumours. The children with right cerebellar tumours presented with disturbances of auditory sequential memory and language processing, whereas those with left cerebellar tumours showed deficits on tests of spatial and visual sequential memory. The vermal lesions led to two profiles: (i) post-surgical mutism, which evolved into speech disorders or language disturbances similar to agrammatism; and (ii) behavioural disturbances ranging from irritability to behaviours reminiscent of autism. These data are consistent with the recently acknowledged role of the cerebellum as a modulator of mental and social functions, and suggest that this role is operative early in childhood.

Perceptual-motor function of school-age children with slow handwriting speed.

This study investigated differences in perceptual-motor measures and sustained attention between children with slow and normal handwriting speed and the relationship between these factors. Thirty-four slow handwriters and 35 normal speed handwriters (7 to 11 years of age) attending elementary schools in Taiwan were given three perceptual-motor tests and a vigilance task to assess sustained attention. Performances on these measures were analyzed using multivariate analysis of variance and regression analyses. A significant difference was found between slow and normal handwriters in upper-limb coordination, visual memory, spatial relation, form constancy, visual sequential memory, figure ground, visual-motor integration, and sustained attention. The three significant predictors of handwriting speed for the slow handwriters were age, visual sequential memory, and visual-motor integration. For the normal speed handwriters, age and upper-limb speed and dexterity were the only two significant predictors. Slow and normal speed handwriters responded to handwriting demands through different perceptual-motor systems. Whereas upper-limb speed and dexterity seems to play an important role in normal speed handwriters, slow handwriters seem to rely more on visually directed processes, including sequence memory and visual-motor integration.

The contribution of the cerebellum to mental and social functions in developmental age

Here are present the data concerning the intellectual, language and frontal performances of 24 children who had undergone surgery because of cerebellar hemispheric or vermis tumors and one girl with viral cerebellitis. The children with right cerebellar tumors presented auditory sequential memory and language processing disturbances; those with left cerebellar tumors showed deficits in spatial tests and visual sequential memory. The girl with cerebellitis showed a complex neuropsychological picture with impairment in processing language and in general sequential functions. Lesions of the vermis lead to two pictures: 1) a postsurgical mutism that could be subdivided into speech disorders (even to the extent of anarthria) and true language disturbances similar to frontal aphasia; and 2) behavioral disturbances ranging from irritability to a truly autistic response. These data seem to support the recently attributed role of the cerebellum as a modulator of the superior mental and social functions.

Exploring the roles of the visual‐spatial sketch pad and central executive in children's arithmetical skills: Views from cognition and developmental neuropsychology

Short‐term memory has often been found to play a major role in children's arithmetical skills. However, Bull and Johnston (1997) found that when differences in reading skills were controlled for, short‐term memory, specifically the functioning of the articulatory loop, did not represent a fundamental deficit for children of low mathematical ability. This study examined the role of other working‐memory mechanisms in arithmetical skills, namely the central executive, using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and the visual‐spatial sketch pad, using the Corsi Blocks. Results showed that children of high and low mathematics ability differed significantly on WCST measures after controlling for differences in reading ability and IQ but did not differ in visual sequential memory. Correlation analyses revealed a significant correlation between arithmetic performance and perseveration measures from the WCST. The implications of this result are discussed in terms of central‐executive functioning and related cognitive and behavioral difficulties.

Visual Sequential Memory and Spelling Ability

Although good visual memory is frequently cited as an essential requirement for competent spelling, there is little empirical evidence to support this. In this paper visual sequential memory was studied in two separate controlled experiments which compared the test performances of 13‐year‐old poor spellers and controls. Test materials were carefully designed to obtain a measure of visual memory with minimal interference from verbal coding. With the variable of IQ controlled for, visual memory did not appear to differentiate between the groups unless mediated by verbal coding.

Information-Processing Patterns in Specific Reading Disability

This research investigated specific processing strengths and weaknesses among three groups of readers who ranged in age from 6 through 10 years. The first-grade unsuccessful and the older unsuccessful readers had similar information-processing patterns, whereas collectively they differed significantly from the first-grade successful readers on short-term auditory/working memory and decoding/encoding. When separately compared to the controls, the age-matched high-risk group showed additional weakness in rapid automatized naming, and the reading-level-matched older disabled group showed additional weakness in phonological coding as well as visual sequential memory. Examination of second-level classifications using cluster analysis suggested the presence of three potential subtypes among the 50 poor readers. All were characterized by difficulty in what was interpreted as symbolic processing/memory (Subtype 1), which occurred in combination with visual processing deficiencies (Subtype 2) and with deficits in both visual processing and rapid automatized naming (Subtype 3).

Which cognitive abilities at age four are the best predictors of reading ability at age seven?

ABSTRACTA longitudinal study investigated the relationship between cognitive abilities at age four and reading at age seven. Reading ability was significantly positively correlated with knowledge of grapheme‐phoneme correspondence, visual memory, auditory sequential memory, and Draw‐a‐man scores (intelligence). Once age (20ro) and intelligence (12%) were partialled out, auditory sequential memory scores at age four accounted for 13% of the variance in reading scores with visual sequential memory scores predicting a further 5%. Implications of results are discussed.

An investigation of some sensory and refractive visual factors in dyslexia

The role of visual factors in dyslexia has been a long-standing source of controversy. Recent research has suggested that there may be a deficit of the transient visual subsystem in dyslexia. The evidence for this hypothesis comes principally from investigations of spatial and temporal contrast sensitivity and visual persistence. This evidence is reviewed and it is noted that previous work has never applied two of these purported “tests of transient function” to the same subject group. The hypothesised transient system deficit in dyslexia was investigated in a study comparing 43 control with 39 dyslexic children who were matched for age, sex, and intelligence. Comprehensive psychometric and optometric data were obtained, including visual acuities and refractive errors. The spatial contrast sensitivity function was determined in such a way as to investigate further the findings of Lovegrove, Martin, Bowling, Blackwood, Badcock and Paxton [(1982) Neuropsychology, 20, 309–315] and Martin and Lovegrove [(1984) Neuropsychologia, 22, 13–77], It might be expected, from the work of Merigan and Maunsell [(1990) Neuroscience, 5, 347–352), that a better test of magno-cellular function would be to investigate the modulation threshold for a virtually uniform field that was flickering sinusoidally at 10 Hz. This temporal contrast sensitivity was studied in a similar way to Brannan and Williams [(1988) Clinical Vision Sciences, 3, 137–142]. A non-verbal simulated reading visual search task was used to investigate the effect of any visual deficits on a test that was, in its low-level visual requirements, similar to reading. The following factors were found to be significantly associated with dyslexia: reduced visual acuity, impaired flicker detection at 10 Hz, reduced low spatial frequency contrast sensitivity, and slightly slower performance at a simulated reading visual search task. The two alleged “tests of transient function” were only weakly correlated with one another ( r = 0.183), suggesting that these variables do not measure the same function. Much of the dyslexic group's slightly slower performance at the simulated reading task could be accounted for by the psychometric variable of visual sequential memory. Like reading, the simulated reading task requires the accurate perception of sequential characters. Hence, it seems unlikely that the low-level visual deficits in the dyslexic group were major causes of their poor reading performance. Alternative explanations for the results are discussed.

Rapid Sequential Processing in Dyslexic and Ordinary Readers

42 dyslexic and 42 ordinary readers were given a rapid sequential short-term memory task using materials adapted from the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities Visual Sequential Memory subset. Dyslexic readers performed at a similar level to ordinary readers. In Study 2, the same readers were given a 10-piece form board to complete as quickly as possible. Dyslexic readers were significantly slower on this task. Since short-term memory was not a feature of the second task, it was reasoned that short-term memory problems were unlikely to be a feature of dyslexic's performances on rapid sequential processing tasks.

RAPID SEQUENTIAL PROCESSING IN DYSLEXIC AND ORDINARY READERS

42 dyslexic and 42 ordinary readers were given a rapid sequential short-term memory task using materials adapted from the Illinois Test of Psycho-linguistic Abilities Visual Sequential Memory subtest. Dyslexic readers performed at a similar level to ordinary readers. In Study 2, the same readers were given a 10-piece form board to complete as quickly as possible. Dyslexic readers were significantly slower on this task. Since short-term memory was not a feature of the second task, it was reasoned that short-term memory problems were unlikely to be a feature of dyslexics' performances on rapid sequential processing tasks.

Cognitive strategies of children with reading disability and normal readers in visual sequential memory.

Primary school boys with reading disability were divided into two groups (dysphonetics and dyseidetics) on the basis of learning style defined by an analysis of spelling errors. Dysphonetics and dyseidetics clearly differed in their cognitive strategies in visual sequential memory tasks, yet were able to remember items presented sequentially provided that the nature of the stimulus was congruent with learning style. In memory for order tasks incorporating both spatial and serial formats, dysphonetics chose spatial order in preference to serial order whereas preferences of dyseidetics were in the opposite direction. When they were required to recognise both spatial order and serial order, dysphonetics made more correct spatial order responses than dyseidetics. The converse was the case for correct serial order responses. As a composite group, children with reading disability were shown to be no less competent in these tasks than normal readers who also revealed strong strategy preferences and little flexibility in switching strategies.

Developmental Dyslexia Subtypes and the Boder Test of Reading-Spelling Patterns

The Boder Test of Reading-Spelling Patterns (BTRSP) purports to classify underachieving readers into categories of nonspecific reading retardation or one of three dyslexia subtypes that indicate problems in processing phonics and analytic-sequential stimuli (dysphonetic), problems learning sight-words and in processing simultaneous-gestalt stimuli (dyseidetic), or a third subtype with mixed processing difficulties. This study compared the performance of dysphonetics, nonspecifics, and normal readers on “gestalt” tasks of facial memory, tactile-visual recognition, Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices, and Benton Visual Retention test, and on “analytic-sequential” tasks of auditory sequential memory, visual sequential memory, sound blending, and Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test. The construct validity of the dysphonetic and nonspecific categories received support; however, a large proportion of cases consisting of classification error, “false negatives,” was suspected. The BTRSP classification criteria of reading level, spelling level, and application of phonics were judged useful dimensions in distinguishing two subtypes of disabled readers and reflective of other cognitive abilities.

The relevance of visual sequential memory to reading.

Summary. One feature of the Barking Reading Project has been the development of a range of assesment techniques for classroom use. The assessment of visual sequential memory is discussed in relation to an assessment procedure included in the final revision of the test battery. A series of reliability and validity measures are presented. One study in particular related to this test development is described. This was concerned with the effects of labelling strategies on visual sequential memory tasks. Two alternatives are compared with the Barking Reading Project test. Nineteen junior school children were given the three visual sequential memory assessments individually and were also given a group reading test. Results are discussed in terms of two approaches to the description of reading difficulties: a task analysis approach and a structuralist approach. The relationship of visual sequential memory to other reading subskills is considered in the light of current research. Implications for the channel/process theory of deficits are drawn.

Effect of prior exercise on cognitive performance tasks by hyperactive and normal young boys.

The 31 hyperactive and 31 normal boys 7 to 10 years old pedaled a bicycle ergometer for 0, 1, 5, and 10 min. then completed the WISC-R Digit Span, Coding B, and ITPA Visual Sequential Memory. Results did not support the inverted-U hypothesis in that prior exercise did not affect cognitive performance.

An Approach to Improving Handwriting by Motor and Tactile Methods

The Learning Difficulties Clinic at St. Thomas' Hospital comprises the Physician in Charge, Remedial Teacher, Occupational Therapist, Speech Therapist, Secretary/Receptionist, and sometimes Eurhythmy Therapist. Children (and occasionally adults) are normally referred by medical, educational and parental sources. The Occupational Therapist assesses the individual's manual dexterity, hand/eye coordination and a sample of handwriting (dictated). The Graham &amp; Kendal “Memory for Design” test and “Visual Sequential Memory” subtest from the Illinois Test for Psycholinguistic Abilities are also administered by the Occupational Therapist, but these could also be carried out by any other team member since they are not a definitive Occupational Therapy speciality. When each member of the team has assessed the individual, they meet for a case conference when assessment results are discussed and recommendations are made. At this stage, the individual is referred for Occupational Therapy sessions if handwriting is poor, usually due to neuro-motor or perceptual difficulties. A programme of pre-writing and writing exercises was devised in an attempt to improve the quality of handwriting in a small group of school children. The results suggest that there was significant improvement in mechanical handwriting ability as a result of therapy.

Effects of Recurrent Middle Ear Effusion in Preschool Years on Language and Learning

Eighteen healthy 8- to 11-year-old children with normal hearing and histories of recurrent middle ear effusion (MEE) before the age of 5 years were evaluated by a battery of audiologic, psychologic, language, and achievement tests. Each of these children was compared to a non-MEE sibling who was tested at the same age. None of the children had been diagnosed as learning disabled. Both groups tested in the bright normal range of verbal ability on the WISC-R. Paired comparison of sibling data revealed that the MEE subjects had deficits in verbal ability, auditory decoding, and spelling skills compared with control siblings. Significant strength in visual sequential memory in the MEE subjects suggests that the availability of compensatory strategies for auditory deficits in these subjects. Sex and/or birth order differences did not explain the differences observed between siblings.

Recurrent middle ear effusion in childhood: implications of temporary auditory deprivation for language and learning.

Eighteen healthy, normal hearing (PTA greater than or equal to 15dB, better ear), neurologically intact, 8 to 11-year-old children who had documented histories of middle ear effusion (MEE) before the age of five years were evaluated by a battery of audiological, psychological, language and achievement tests. Each was compared to his/her non-MEE sibling who was tested at the same age. All the children (n = 36) tested in the bright normal range of verbal ability (WISC-R) and none had been diagnosed previously as learning disabled. Paired comparison of sibling data revealed that the effusion subjects had deficits in verbal ability, auditory decoding and spelling skills when compared with their control siblings. Significant strength in visual sequential memory in the MEE subjects suggests the availability of compensatory strategies for auditory deficits. Data analysis on the basis of sex and/or birth order differences could not explain the differences between siblings.

THE ITPA VISUAL SEQUENTIAL MEMORY TASK: AN ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATION AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR GOOD AND POOR READERS

Summary. Four experiments were carried out to examine the different recall strategies employed in a diagnostic test of visual sequential memory (VSM). Briefly the results were as follows: Experiment 1 indicated that competent readers tend to use a verbal labelling strategy in the recall of visual stimuli, rather than visual memory per se. Experiment 2 suggested that the retention of the visual stimuli could be improved by the adoption of a verbal labelling strategy. Experiment 3 suggested that when verbal labelling was suppressed the performance of competent readers on the VSM task deteriorated to a level similar to that of poor readers. Experiment 4 suggested that if retarded readers were instructed to use a verbal labelling strategy their retention of visual symbols improved significantly. Taken together, the principal implication from these results is that good and poor readers may differ not with respect to visual memory but their differential ability to employ a verbal labelling strategy in the retention of visual stimuli.