Visual-motor Integration In Children Research Articles

Predicting Age and Visual-Motor Integration Using Origami Photographs: Deep Learning Study.

Origami is a popular activity among preschool children and can be used by therapists as an evaluation tool to assess children's development in clinical settings. It is easy to implement, appealing to children, and time-efficient, requiring only simple materials-pieces of paper. Furthermore, the products of origami may reflect children's ages and their visual-motor integration (VMI) development. However, therapists typically evaluate children's origami creations based primarily on their personal background knowledge and clinical experience, leading to subjective and descriptive feedback. Consequently, the effectiveness of using origami products to determine children's age and VMI development lacks empirical support. This study had two main aims. First, we sought to apply artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to origami products to predict children's ages and VMI development, including VMI level (standardized scores) and VMI developmental status (typical, borderline, or delayed). Second, we explored the performance of the AI models using all combinations of photographs taken from different angles. A total of 515 children aged 2-6 years were recruited and divided into training and testing groups at a 4:1 ratio. Children created origami dogs, which were photographed from 8 different angles. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, 6th Edition, was used to assess the children's VMI levels and developmental status. Three AI models-ResNet-50, XGBoost, and a multilayer perceptron-were combined sequentially to predict age z scores and VMI z scores using the training group. The trained models were then tested using the testing group, and the accuracy of the predicted VMI developmental status was also calculated. The R2 of the age and the VMI trained models ranged from 0.50 to 0.73 and from 0.50 to 0.66, respectively. The AI models that obtained an R2>0.70 for the age model and an R2>0.60 for the VMI model were selected for model testing. Those models were further examined for the accuracy of the VMI developmental status, the correlations, and the mean absolute error (MAE) of both the age and the VMI models. The accuracy of the VMI developmental status was about 71%-76%. The correlations between the final predicted age z score and the real age z score ranged from 0.84 to 0.85, and the correlations of the final predicted VMI z scores to the real z scores ranged from 0.77 to 0.81. The MAE of the age models ranged from 0.42 to 0.46 and those of the VMI models ranged from 0.43 to 0.48. Our findings indicate that AI techniques have a significant potential for predicting children's development. The insights provided by AI may assist therapists in better interpreting children's performance in activities.

Cognitive health outcomes of fundamental motor skill applications in children through cooperative learning method

BackgroundPrevious research has suggests that cooperative learning methods and the development of fundamental motor skills support children's cognitive development, and further studies covering various aspects are recommended. In this study, as an alternative to traditional physical education classes including fundamental motor skill activities, we investigated the impact of cooperative learning methods incorporating these skills on children's visual-motor integration and selective attention.MethodsA total of 60 boy children in the 10–11 age range were included in the study. Groups; classical method (10.95 ± 0.58age), and cooperative learning group (10.91 ± 0.42age). The study spanned a total of 24 physical education class hours. While the classical method group continued to attend physical education lessons with an FMS-based prepared program for 8 weeks, cooperative learning group participated in an FMS-based program prepared according to the cooperative learning method (40min/3days/8weeks).At the beginning and end of the study, children underwent the Bender-Gestalt test and the d2 test of attention.ResultsWithin-group pre-post test comparisons revealed improvement in visual-motor integration and selective attention for both the classical method and cooperative learning groups. In between-group post-test comparisons, the cooperative learning group demonstrated greater improvement in visual-motor integration and selective attention parameters compared to the classical method.ConclusionThe results support increasing the inclusion of fundamental motor skill activities in physical education classes and advocating for the use of cooperative learning methods in these classes. Enhancements in visual-motor integration and selective attention may contribute to children forming quality relationships, enjoying activities, learning stress management, and developing as a group.

Visual-motor integration in children with unilateral cerebral palsy: application of the computer-aided measure of visual-motor integration

BackgroundChildren with unilateral cerebral palsy (UCP) are encouraged to participate in the regular school curriculum. However, even when using the less-affected hand for handwriting, children with UCP still experience handwriting difficulties. Visual-motor integration (VMI) is a predictor of handwriting quality. Investigating VMI in children with UCP is important but still lacking. Conventional paper-based VMI assessments is subjective and use all-or-nothing scoring procedures, which may compromise the fidelity of VMI assessments. Moreover, identifying important shapes that are predictive of VMI performance might benefit clinical decision-making because different geometric shapes represent different developmental stepping stones of VMI. Therefore, a new computer-aided measure of VMI (the CAM-VMI) was developed to investigate VMI performance in children with UCP and to identify shapes important for predicting their VMI performance.MethodsTwenty-eight children with UCP and 28 typically-developing (TD) children were recruited. All participants were instructed to complete the CAM-VMI and Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery-VMI). The test items of the CAM-VMI consisted of nine simple geometric shapes related to writing readiness. Two scores of the CAM-VMI, namely, Error and Effort, were obtained by image registration technique. The performances on the Beery-VMI and the CAM-VMI of children with UCP and TD children were compared by independent t-test. A series of stepwise regression analyses were used to identify shapes important for predicting VMI performance in children with UCP.ResultsSignificant group differences were found in both the CAM-VMI and the Beery-VMI results. Furthermore, Error was identified as a significant aspect for predicting VMI performance in children with UCP. Specifically, the square item was the only significant predictor of VMI performance in children with UCP.ConclusionsThis study was a large-scale study that provided direct evidence of impaired VMI in school-aged children with UCP. Even when using the less-affected hand, children with UCP could not copy the geometric shapes as well as TD children did. The copied products of children with UCP demonstrated poor constructional accuracy and inappropriate alignment. Furthermore, the predictive model suggested that the constructional accuracy of a copied square is an important predictor of VMI performance in children with UCP.

Integrated Life Skills Training and Executive Function Strategies in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in Qatar: A Pilot Study of a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background and aim Executive function (EF) impairment is common in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). EF strategies are considered effective in improving the therapeutic outcomes of children with ASD. This study primarily aimed to explore whether integrating EF strategies combined with regular occupational therapy intervention is more effective in improving daily life skills (DLS) and sensory integration/processing (SI/SP) skills than regular occupational therapy alone in children with ASD and secondarily aims to assess treatment outcomes on improving visual motor integration (VMI) skills. Methods A total of 17 participants (13 males, mean age 4.29 years,standard deviation 0.66) completed the study. Following the baseline assessments, the participants were randomly assigned to the treatment group (45-minute once-weekly individual occupational therapy plus EF strategies) or control group (45-minute once-weekly individual therapy sessions alone). All participants received one intervention per week for 14 weeks. All children were systematically evaluated using a pediatric functional independent measure (WeeFIM) and the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) to assess DLS, the Short Sensory Profile 2 (SSP2) to assessSP/SI, and the Beery VMI test (Beery VMI) to assess VMI. Assessments were conducted at baseline, seven weeks, and 14 weeks of treatment. Results The analysis of the results between the treatment and control groups revealed that the treatment group had greater gains and significant differences in the mean values of both the WeeFIM and SSP2. In addition, notable distinctions were observed in the VB-MAPP transition subscale; although these differences did not reach statistical significance, they were clinically significant. Minimal differences were noted in the VMI between the two groups. Nevertheless, both groups showed statistically significant improvements across all outcome measures. Conclusions Our study provides preliminary evidence of the efficacy of EF strategies combined with regular occupational therapy for DLS, SP/SI, and VMI in children with ASD. The differences between the groups support further evaluation of the effectiveness of EF strategies for the next stage of a larger randomized clinical trial.

Using Artificial Intelligence to Identify the Associations of Children's Performance of Coloring, Origami, and Copying Activities With Visual-Motor Integration.

Performance of coloring, origami, and copying activities reflects children's visual-motor integration (VMI), but the levels of association remain unclear. To use artificial intelligence (AI) to investigate associations of performance of coloring, origami, and copying activities with VMI. Cross-sectional study. Kindergartens. A sample of 370 children (182 boys and 188 girls) in the second and third years of kindergarten. Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, 6th Edition (VMI-6). Data for preschool children from an ongoing project were retrieved. AI models were trained to use photographs of activity products to predict total score on the VMI-6. R2 values were used to identify the variance in VMI-6 standardized scores explained by predicted scores from the activities. That is, R2 values reflected associations between activity performance and VMI. The R2 values for the combination of origami and copying were the largest (.390-.577). These R2 values were larger than those for each individual activity (.340-.473) and similar to those for the combination of all three activities (.400-.550). Because moderate R2 values were found between performance of the three activity products and VMI, the three activities have high potential for use in identifying children's level of VMI or as teaching materials to facilitate the development of children's VMI. Furthermore, combining origami and copying activities is recommended for teachers and clinicians who need to address VMI. What This Article Adds: A combination of origami and copying activities had the strongest associations with children's VMI. Teachers and clinicians can use these two activities when addressing VMI development among preschool children.

A-166 The Beery VMI in focal Pediatric Epilepsy: Clinical Correlates and Lateralizing Value

Abstract Objective: The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) is a commonly used test of visuoconstruction. While many assume this task has lateralizing value in focal epilepsy, this remains untested. The present study investigated the utility of the VMI in children and adolescents with focal, well-lateralized epilepsy. Methods: One hundred and one children and adolescents with focal epilepsy (ages 4–18, 47 males, 54 females) completed the VMI as part of their neuropsychological evaluation. Pearson and Spearman correlations assessed relations between VMI scores and epilepsy severity factors (age of onset, number of antiepileptic drugs [AEDs], seizure frequency, IQ). T-tests assessed VMI differences between left (n=56) and right (n=45) hemisphere cases and Chi-square analyses tested differences in impairment rates across groups (defined as standard scores ≤79). Results: VMI correlated significantly with IQ (r=.673, p<.001), but not age of onset (r=-.080, p=.428), seizure frequency (r=.013, p=.895), or number of AEDs (r=-.181, p=.071). Further, VMI scores did not differ between left (84.43 [16.06]) and right (81.89 [14.31]; t=.839, p=.403) sided seizures, nor did impairment rates differ (left 35.7%, right 46.7%, chi-square=1.24, p=.265). Conclusion: While the VMI is related to IQ, relations with other epilepsy variables were minimal and despite popular belief, VMI does not strongly lateralize left and right hemisphere cases likely due to functional reorganization/crowding effects that may occur in left hemisphere epilepsy.

Motor skills, visual perception, and visual-motor integration in children and youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BackgroundMotor skill deficits are prevalent among children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) however, little is known about the underlying mechanism of these deficits. In response to this gap, this study investigated how visual perception (VP) and visual-motor integration (VMI) are associated with motor skills among children and youth with ASD. MethodsSixty-seven individuals with ASD and sixty-seven age- and gender-matched individuals without ASD (age range: 9.83–15.13 years) participated. Motor skills were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and VP and VMI with the respective components of the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration-6 (Beery VMI-6). ResultsSignificantly more children and youth with ASD were in the red and orange zone of the MABC-2 traffic-lighting system for the total MABC-2 and the Aiming and Catching and Balance components compared to the children and youth without ASD. Both groups did not differ on the VP and VMI components of the Beery VMI-6. Pearson correlations between VP and VMI, and motor skills were weak but significant for the individuals without ASD, but not for the ASD group. ConclusionThe current study added to the evidence about motor skill deficits among children and youth with ASD. VP and VMI were not related to motor skills, suggesting that these functions – as measured in the current study – are no underlying mechanisms of motor skill deficits of children with ASD and average intelligence. Diagnostic implications are provided for the evidence of motor skill deficits among children and youth with ASD.

No evidence of a minimal clinically important difference for the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration in children with autism spectrum disorder

The Beery Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) battery of tests are some of the most commonly used assessments in pediatric occupational therapy, often used to measure change over time. However, the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) has not been estimated for interpreting change scores. We estimated the MCID for the Beery VMI battery of tests in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Four occupational therapists collected data in a public elementary school on 64 children with ASD. The Beery VMI battery was administered to children with ASD twice, approximately 11 months apart. To estimate MCID values, Beery VMI battery scores were anchored to 15-point Likert questions measuring occupational therapists’ ratings of functional change over three domains: fine motor skills, handwriting, and activities of daily living (ADLs). Using this anchor-based method, we were unable to estimate MCID values for the Beery VMI battery. Children’s Beery VMI battery scores did not change significantly over the course of the school year, and there was only one weak correlation between VMI battery change scores and therapists’ ratings of change. The inability to estimate Beery VMI battery MCID values for children with ASD adds further support for research cautioning the use of the Beery VMI as an outcome measure.

Effect of using adaptive seating equipment on grasping and visual motor integration in children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundAdaptive seating is commonly used as an intervention method to enhance postural control. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of using therapy ball as a seat alternative to using typical chair on grasping and visual motor integration in the children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy. For this aim, thirty children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy from both sexes were included in this study. The children ages ranged from 3 to 6 years old. The degree of spasticity was 1 to 1+ according to modified Ashworth scale. The children were able to sit independently and follow instructions. Children were randomly assigned into two groups (experimental group and control group). Each child was evaluated before and after 3 successive months of selected occupational therapy exercises program. All the children of both groups received the same selected occupational therapy exercises program, but the children in the experimental group performed the exercises while sitting on therapy ball, and the children in the control group performed the exercises while sitting on typical chair.ResultsThere was a significant improvement in the measured variables for both groups after treatment. The post-treatment results of the two groups of grasping and visual motor integration for age equivalent scores revealed significant difference (p=0.008 and p=0.011 respectively) in favor of the experimental group.ConclusionsTherapy ball could be used as a seat alternative to using typical chair to facilitate visual motor integration and grasping in the children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy.

Systematic Review of Visual Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Disabilities.

Original research articles regarding visual motor integration skills in children with developmental disabilities and the impact of occupational therapy were identified, appraised, and synthesized. Twenty-four articles were chosen for this review. Themes were noted during the critique of articles. Three themes emerged: “age,” “gender,” and “diagnosis.” Regarding the impact on visual motor integration, there was strong evidence for age, moderate evidence for gender, and strong evidence for diagnosis. Future research investigating visual motor integration in children should control for age and diagnosis.

Combined Effects of Virtual Reality and Computer Game-Based Cognitive Therapy on the Development of Visual-Motor Integration in Children with Intellectual Disabilities: A Pilot Study.

Purpose Visual-motor integration is a good indicator of a child's overall developmental and functional level. This study investigated the combined effects of virtual reality (VR) and computer game-based cognitive therapy on the development of visual-motor integration in children with intellectual disabilities. Methods The study used a single-group pre-post study design and 13 children with intellectual disabilities who were recruited from a community rehabilitation center participated in the study. We used the Wii VR video game and the CoTras computer game to deliver cognitive therapy over 12 sessions. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) was used to evaluate motor function related to visual-motor integration to identify changes in function, and the Developmental Test of Visual Perception-2 (DTVP-2) was used to assess changes in visual perception function associated with visual-motor integration. Results The VR and computer game-based cognitive therapy has shown significant difference in total standard score of BOT-2 associated with visual-motor integration representing improved motor function (p < 0.01). Comparison of the DTVP-2 scores showed the significant difference in visual-motor integration of spatial relation and visual-motor speed (p < 0.05), motor-reduced visual perception (p < 0.01), and general visual perception (p < 0.01). Conclusions Results of this study provide useful evidence supporting the possibility of combined VR and computer game-based cognitive therapy for children with intellectual disabilities.

Prematüre Retinopatisi Şiddeti İle Görsel Motor Entegrasyon Arasındaki İlişkinin Değerlendirilmesi

Aim: The aim of the current study is to assess the effects of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) severity on visual motor integration in children. Material and Methods: Totally 104 children (44 girls, 60 boys) between 2 and 6 chronological age were included in the study. The children’s mean gestational age was 28.75±2.67 and birth weight was 1252.92±411.33. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration with supplemental tests of Visual Perception and Motor Coordination were used for the assessment of children. Results: The incidences of retinopathy of prematurity severity were 23.1% Stage 1+, 24% Stage 2+ and 52.9% Stage 3+ in the study. The incidence of abnormal visual motor integration was 51% of the study population. The incidence of abnormal visual perception and motor coordination were 37.5% and 51.9%, respectively. Referring to the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration results, there was statistically significant correlation between the level of all visual motor integration, visual perception, and motor subtest results (p=0.00). There were not statistically significant correlation between retinopathy of prematurity severity and results of visual motor integration and visual perception tests (p&amp;gt;0.05). There was a significant correlation between retinopathy of prematurity severity and motor coordination test results (p&amp;lt;0.05). Conclusion: This study shows that as the retinopathy of prematurity severity increases, motor coordination skills are negatively affected in preterm born children at pre-school ages.

Visual motor integration in children with and without reading disability

Where there are few occupational therapists in regular practice, and an educational psychologist and special educators conducted the majority of the assessment procedure and evaluation of children with visual-motor integration (VMI). They consider assessing children with VMI as similar to the assessment of children with research instruments, and the availability of the trained occupational therapist was limited. VMI is generally expressed as the ability of the child to integrate visual perception input and to coordinate it with limb movements for the execution of motor activities in sequential order. A child with impaired VMI skills fails to execute motor- based activity. We evaluated the visual-motor integration (VMI) in children with and without reading disabilities (RDs) in the primary schools of Mudichur. Full Range Test of Visual-Motor Integration (FRTVMI) was used to evaluate the visual-motor integration among children. A total of 20 children recruited from primary schools in Mudichur. Every parent of the children gave the willingness to participate in the study; 10 children were already diagnosed as having RDs, whereas the remaining 10 children were age-matched typically developing children. The results indicated that children with reading disability scored poor on the FRTVMI than the typically developing age-matched peer-group children. The results support the impairment in visual-motor integration is strongly related to learning disabilities, and the therapist should educate teachers of primary schools to refer children with learning disabilities. However, there is a need for strong assessment among children’s to quantify their skills in reading and writing, and it is vital to diagnose children in the early years to avoid academic failures. Teachers were in need to be educated to refer children are who are suspected of being at risk for RDs in school settings.

Relationship between screen-time and hand function, play and sensory processing in children without disabilities aged 4-7years: A exploratory study.

Screen-time has become a regular occupation for young children at home and school, with little evidence of its impact on children's developmental skills. This study explored the association between children's screen-time, fine motor, in-hand manipulation (IHM), visual-motor integration (VMI), sensory processing (SP) and parent-reported play skills. The fine motor, IHM, VMI, SP and play skills of a sample of 25 Australian children without disabilities (Mage=6.2years, SD=1.03; 64% girls) were assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Second Edition, Test of In-Hand Manipulation-Revised, Berry Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration Sixth Edition, Sensory Processing Measure-Home Form and Pretend Play Enjoyment Developmental Checklist (PPEDC). Parents completed a week-long log of their child's screen-time. Spearman's rho correlations and linear regressions with bootstrapping were used for data analysis. Statistically significant moderate level negative correlations were found between Total Screen-Time (TST) and VMI skills (r=-.67, p<.01); Interactive Screen-Time and IHM abilities (r=-.46, p<.05) and TST and bilateral coordination skills (r=-.42, p<.05). There were significant negative correlations between SP ability and both TST (r=-.53, p<.01) and Watching Screen-Time (r=-.66, p<.01). When the PPEDC Object Substitution variable was entered into a regression model as a co-variate of hand function, it appeared to lessen the impact of TST as an independent predictor variable of children's VMI and bilateral coordination skills (p<.23 and p<.61). Playing with toys and using object substitution in play (e.g. a child uses an object for something else other than its intended use when playing with it) potentially appear to be a moderating factor of the impact of children's screen-time on their bilateral coordination and VMI skills. Clinicians can encourage children's active and dynamic involvement in games and play pursuits to counteract the potential impact of increased use of devices that involve screen-time.

Visual Motor Integration in Children With Sickle Cell Disease.

Children with sickle cell disease (SCD) demonstrate deficits in cognitive and academic functioning. This study compared the visual motor integration (VMI) skills of children with SCD to non-SCD sibling controls. In total, 105 participants (67 patients with SCD, 38 controls) were recruited during a routine clinic visit. Each participant was administered the Grooved Pegboard Test, a test of manual dexterity and the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of VMI, a measure of graphomotor skills. Children with SCD demonstrated average (M=89.61, SE=3.08) fine manual dexterity and speed, but more complex fine motor functioning (graphomotor skills) (M=77.61, SE=1.65) was impaired. Relative to healthy siblings, children with SCD were not found to have different fine manual dexterity and speed (P=0.617). Patients with SCD were found to have significantly worse graphomotor skills (P=0.04). Children with SCD were found to have average basic fine motor dexterity and speed, but impaired VMI, a more complex fine motor skill. This finding is significant given the functional importance of complex fine motor skills in early academic activities.

Assessment of Visual Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder in Indian Context

Assessment of Visual Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder in Indian Context

Improving Conceptual Knowledge of the Italian Writing System in Kindergarten: A Cluster Randomized Trial.

This study assessed the efficacy of PASSI (Promoting the Achievement of Sound-Sign Integration), an intervention to improve children's conceptual knowledge of the Italian writing system in kindergarten, which is an emergent literacy predictor of reading and spelling acquisition focused on letter-speech sound integration. PASSI implements an embedded-explicit approach in which teachers target specific subskills (reflection on the graphic, symbolic and phonological aspect of written signs) and emphasize children's contextualized interactions with oral and written language. One hundred fifty-nine Italian children participated in this study. Six teachers (and their three respective classes) were randomly assigned to the experimental group, and six teachers were assigned to the control group. All children were tested on the invented spelling of words and numbers, knowledge of the alphabet, orthographic awareness, and drawing twice, before and after the intervention. Children's visual-motor integration skills were also assessed as a control variable. The data were analyzed through the complex samples general linear model (GLM) approach. The results confirmed the efficacy of PASSI in promoting children's conceptual knowledge of the writing system and related emergent literacy skills. Theoretical and educational implications of the results are presented and discussed.

Relations of Preschoolers' Visual-Motor and Object Manipulation Skills With Executive Function and Social Behavior

Purpose: The purpose of this article was to examine specific linkages between early visual-motor integration skills and executive function, as well as between early object manipulation skills and social behaviors in the classroom during the preschool year. Method: Ninety-two children aged 3 to 5 years old (Mage = 4.31 years) were recruited to participate. Comprehensive measures of visual-motor integration skills, object manipulation skills, executive function, and social behaviors were administered in the fall and spring of the preschool year. Results: Our findings indicated that children who had better visual-motor integration skills in the fall had better executive function scores (B = 0.47 [0.20], p < .05, β = .27) in the spring of the preschool year after controlling for age, gender, Head Start status, and site location, but not after controlling for children's baseline levels of executive function. In addition, children who demonstrated better object manipulation skills in the fall showed significantly stronger social behavior in their classrooms (as rated by teachers) in the spring, including more self-control (B − 0.03 [0.00], p < .05, β = .40), more cooperation (B = 0.02 [0.01], p < .05, β = .28), and less externalizing/hyperactivity (B = − 0.02 [0.01], p < .05, β = − .28) after controlling for social behavior in the fall and other covariates. Conclusion: Children's visual-motor integration and object manipulation skills in the fall have modest to moderate relations with executive function and social behaviors later in the preschool year. These findings have implications for early learning initiatives and school readiness.

Visual-motor integration in children with Prader-Willi syndrome.

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is characterised by hypotonia, hypogonadism, short stature, obesity, behavioural problems, intellectual disability, and delay in language, social and motor development. There is very limited knowledge about visual-motor integration in children with PWS. Seventy-three children with PWS aged 7-17 years were included. Visual-motor integration was assessed using the Beery Visual-motor Integration test at the start of the study and after 2 years. The association between visual-motor integration and age, gender, genetic subtype and intelligence was assessed. Children with PWS scored 'very low' (-3 standard deviations) in visual-motor integration and 'below average' (-1 standard deviation) in visual perception and motor coordination compared with typically developing children. Visual-motor integration was higher in children with a deletion (β = -0.170, P = 0.037), in older children (β = 0.222, P = 0.009) and in those with a higher total IQ (β = 0.784, P < 0.001). Visual perception was higher with a deletion (β = -0.193, P = 0.044) and higher IQ (β = -0.618, P < 0.001), but motor coordination was only higher with a higher total IQ (β = 0.429, P = 0.001). Visual perception and motor coordination were not associated with age or gender. There was a trend for visual-motor integration decline over the 2 year follow-up period (P = 0.099). Visual perception and motor coordination did not change over the follow-up period. Visual-motor integration is very poor in children with PWS. Children scored higher on the time-limited subtests for visual perception and motor coordination than the combined test for visual-motor integration. Separation of visual-motor integration tasks into pure visual or motor tasks and allowing sufficient time to perform the tasks might improve daily activities, both at home and at school.

Visual Motor Integration in Children with and without Reading Disabilities in Oman

This study investigated the differences in visual-motor integration (VMI) between children with and without reading disabilities (RDs) in the Sultanate of Oman by employing the Full Range Test of Visual Motor Integration (FRTVMI, Hammill, Pearson, Voress, & Reynolds, 2006). A total of 364 pupils from public elementary schools in Muscat, the capital of Oman, participated in the study; 171 pupils were already diagnosed as having RDs whereas 175 were normally achieving (NA) pupils. After examining internal consistency estimates of the FRTVMI on the sample a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine the differences in VMI between the two pupil groups. Additionally, the effects of gender as well as the interaction between gender and pupil condition (RDs vs. ND) were examined. The results indicated that NA children scored higher on the FRTVMI than did the children with RDs. There were no significant differences in VMI between males and females in the two children groups. The interaction between gender and group condition (RDs vs. NA), however, showed that NA female pupils displayed the highest levels of VMI whereas female pupils with RDs displayed the lowest level of VMI. The results support the theoretical propositions that learning disabilities (LDs) in general and RDs in particular are strongly related to impairment in VMI and therefore assessment of such skill is important in diagnosing children who are suspected of being at risk for RDs in school settings.