Virtual Land Research Articles

Visualising trade-related virtual urban land transfers in China

ABSTRACT As a type of environmental footprint, the concept of virtual land captures the indirect land use embedded in our consumption and trade activities. Utilising the environmentally-extended multi-regional input–output model (EEMRIO) and Kaleidoscope diagram, we visualise for the first time the interprovincial flow of virtual urban land in China. It unveils the intricate urban network connections and the telecoupled interactions between human activities and land use amidst China's rapid urbanisation phase. The results indicate that the eastern region of China emerges as the primary net beneficiary of virtual urban land, whereas the western region stands as the principal net contributor. The local urban land in 65% of the provinces suffices for their own consumption demands. However, provinces like Zhejiang, Henan, and Jiangsu rely heavily on inter-provincial urban land to fulfil their consumption requirements. Inter-regional trade plays a pivotal role in facilitating the flow of land resources, significantly easing the strain between human demands and land availability in the developed coastal provinces of eastern China. Yet, it imposes additional ecological pressure on the more ecologically vulnerable areas in the west. The insights from this research are poised to offer valuable guidance for the Chinese government in harmonising urban development strategies, industrial distribution and the allocation of construction land on a national scale.

Crypto/Space: Computational parasitism, virtual land grabs, and the production of Web3 Exit zones

This paper explores how so-called ‘Web3’ blockchain projects are materially and socially constituted. A blockchain is an append-only distributed database. The technology is being hyped as applicable for a whole range of industries, social service provisions, and as a fix for economic disparities in communities left behind by mainstream financial systems. Drawing on case studies from our ongoing research we explain how, despite being virtual, Web3 projects are dependent on clearly defined spaces of production from which they derive their speculative value. We conceptualise this relationship as Crypto/Space, where space and blockchain software are mutually constituted. We consider how Crypto/Spaces are produced in three ways: 1) how project developers are adopting a parasitic relationship with host locations to appropriate energy, infrastructure, and local resources; 2) how projects enable ‘virtual land grabs’ where developers are engaging in land acquisitions, and associated displacement of local people, with no real intention to use the land for the declared purpose; and 3) how blockchain technology and speculative finance imaginaries are inspiring new anarcho-capitalist crypto-utopian ‘Exit zones’, often in the Global South. Far from being a zero-sum virtual game world, we argue that cryptocurrency projects are parasitic, often requiring predation on poor and otherwise marginalised communities to appropriate resources, onboard new users and enable favourable regulation.

Impact of political relationships on virtual land flow from China's food trade

The increasing backlash against globalization has shifted public opinion towards being against trade. This situation puts food trade, which is resources constrained and susceptible to political relations, into a complex dilemma. Due to the concerns on agricultural endowments, food trade needs to be considered with strategic interests because of its sensitivity and fragility. Using virtual land as a measurement to analyse the resource flows behind the food trade can provide an objective perspective on what extent a country depends on the trade. Overlaying worldwide trade disputes and political interventions, establishing solid trade relationships is increasingly becoming urgent. This study uses an extended gravity model, assesses the virtual land traded by China with 10 species over 20 years, and provides insights on establishing politics-oriented trade relationships, further testing how this political mechanism works in the food trade. The results demonstrate that memorandums of understanding are the fundamental institutional layer to guarantee trading activities and promote smooth transactions for both sides; state visits are determinable factors in establishing bilateral relationships and it significantly promote upper-middle income countries, which crucially impacts the trading system. As those endeavors undertaken by executive departments are often ignored, more attention should be paid to them during interactive stages. Political relations show differences in food trade among different countries and varieties. The promoting effect of political relations is stronger in middle and high-income countries, and the impact on Russia and Ukraine is more significant than others. Compared within varieties, foreign state visits and endeavor presents more positive on pork.

Metaverses and virtual real estate markets: The commodification and assetization of the digital

The recent development of metaverses and virtual real estate markets (VREMs) has garnered a lot of media attention in the last two years. In this paper, we go beyond the discourse on the hyper-speculative nature of crypto markets to look at how the digitalization of virtual land (markets) is pushing toward new kinds of virtual spaces and real estate assetization. Doing so, we propose three analytical entry points for further research on VREMs, namely (1) the fabric of a market for virtual lands, (2) the encoded relations to virtual lands and (3) the digital assetization of virtual spaces.

Uncovering the structure and evolution of global virtual water and agricultural land network

The effective management and allocation of water and land resources is pivotal for ensuring global food security and facilitating the transition towards sustainable development. Combining multi-regional input-output analysis and complex network modelling, this study examining the spatial-temporal evolution and topological structures of multi-layer virtual water and agricultural land networks, analyzed the network characteristics of different countries/regions, and tested the network vulnerability between virtual water trade network and virtual agricultural land network. From the results, it is revealed that 30.9 %—34.14 % of global water resources and 32.9 %—40 % of global agricultural land are associated with international trade. Meanwhile, the geographical distribution of this trade has shifted from low-income countries to middle and high-income countries, showing three distinct fluctuations in their instability levels. Additionally, quantitative network analysis indicates that resource trade networks exhibit small-world characteristics with increasing trends in network density, clustering coefficient, and average path length values over time. Among the two disturbance scenarios, both virtual water and virtual agricultural land networks were more vulnerable under deliberate assault than under random failure, however, the agricultural land network demonstrates greater toughness compared to the virtual water network. These findings highlight the importance of sustainably managing global water and land resources within a framework for sustainable development which aims at promoting both worldwide food security and environmental protection simultaneously.

Market Value or Meta Value? The Value of Virtual Land during the Metaverse’s Digital Era

Market Value or Meta Value? The Value of Virtual Land during the Metaverse’s Digital Era

Land, reconfigured: Defying the laws of physics, upholding the rules of the market in the metaverse

Land ownership, occupancy, and use are enduringly central components of economies and societies across the world. Even in a capitalist economy increasingly mediated through digital technologies, land remains foundational to wide-ranging aspects of social life. However, conceptualizations of land fundamentally transform through virtual environments like the Metaverse, where digital or virtual land is a core feature. This article examines the construction and use of land under digital capitalism, specifically in the online virtual reality environment Metaverse. Studying virtual land markets in this environment, we show how land exists in continuous material and conceptual transformation via myriad landmaking technologies. Virtual landmaking offers new capital accumulation possibilities while simultaneously reifying existing market logics and creating new fictions around land. We emphasize how, despite its newness, virtual landmaking in the Metaverse relates to landmaking efforts that predate digital capitalism, from state-led large-scale engineering projects to land grabs and colonial expansion. Simultaneously, land reconceptualization in the Metaverse reflects new economic dynamics germane to digital capitalism, including commodification and assetization, and the rise of digital platforms as both market creators, through digital renderings, and rentier intermediaries. Throughout, we highlight the distributional and political stakes of reconfiguring land via new technologies.

Analysis of Buying, Selling, and Leasing Virtual Land in the Metaverse: A Perspective from Sharia Economic Law

This research aims to analyze the position of virtual land buying, selling, and leasing practices using cryptocurrency in the metaverse from the perspective of Islamic economic law. This study uses a descriptive analysis method with a normative juridical approach and data analysis techniques through three stages of analysis: focusing the data, presenting the data, and drawing conclusions. The research found that the practice of buying, selling, and leasing virtual land in the metaverse is permissible because it meets the conditions and pillars of a valid contract. The transactions carried out involve intangible assets, namely virtual land and cryptocurrency. In these transactions, there is an expansion of the object of the ijarah (lease) contract, which typically involves the benefit of tangible objects or assets but can also include the benefit of intangible objects or assets, provided that the intangible asset requires another object (a tangible object) or a process that enables the asset to have utility, thus fulfilling the purpose of the contract in accordance with the principles of muamalah maliyyah (financial transactions). The development of the object of the ijarah contract is a scientific contribution to the development of Islamic economic law theory. Therefore, further research is needed on the status of intangible assets as objects of contracts to explore their benefits and legal status in accordance with Sharia principles.

Pembelian Lahan Virtual pada Platform Metaverse Menggunakan Mata Uang Kripto Perspektif Hukum Islam

Virtual land in the metaverse can be understood as the area being traded to investors. The area is a clone of the original area in the real world. Through this platform, one can virtually have an office, workspace and other functions. In this virtual world, the developer has provided many options and other supporting features. Virtual land purchase transactions are projected to use cryptocurrencies. Therefore, this study answers two paradigms that intersect with one another. On the one hand, virtual land purchases still reap various polemics in Islamic law. On the other hand, the use and investment of cryptocurrencies are also still experiencing various upheavals in the legal implementation. This study concludes that the practice of investing in buying virtual land on the metaverse platform is permissible with the terms and conditions: having sufficient knowledge about virtual investment and having sufficient experience in non-physical businesses in order to survive and generate profits.

Virtual Real Estate: New Trend or Global Scam?

The paper studies the concept of «virtual real estate», the market of which is developing against the backdrop of the emergence of metaverses. The current trend in the development of the Internet involves the merging of gaming and social life, which forms a huge, rapidly growing economy of consumption of virtual goods. The main factor in adjusting the trend of digital development is the evolution of the interaction between the Internet and users, therefore, the article initially considered the features and distinctive features of web 1.0, web 2.0, web 3.0. The technical solutions that distinguish web 3.0 are shown, contributing to the expansion of opportunities for involving consumers in the virtual world and the formation of their own virtual economy. Further, the concept of «metaverse» is investigated, key characteristics are highlighted. It has been established that the metaverse is a hybrid of the virtual and physical worlds, creating a space for communication, life and work. The metaverse market is growing, which makes it attractive to investors, one of the ways to invest for which is to purchase virtual land and real estate. Virtual real estate cannot be touched, but it has value, increases in price, which makes it an attractive investment. The purchase of virtual real estate is carried out for real money. Virtual real estate is a piece of land in a virtual space on which it is possible to build objects and participate in the game. The article is an opportunity to understand what virtual real estate is – another global scam or an attractive investment.

Quantifying Resource Nexus: Virtual Water Flows, Water Stress Indices, and Unsustainable Import Fraction in South Korea’s Grain Trade Landscape

This study delves into the intricate dynamics of South Korea’s grain production and trade, specifically scrutinizing water resource management and sustainability trends from 1991 to 2022. The primary objective was to assess the temporal evolution of South Korea’s agricultural virtual water trade in maize, soybeans and wheat. Employing the virtual water flows assessment method, water stress index, and an unsustainable import fraction (UIF) analysis, this research aimed to uncover key patterns and dynamics within the agricultural grain trade landscape. Utilizing comprehensive datasets encompassing grain trade, as well as water and land footprint data, this study assessed the intricate interplay between agricultural production, trade, and resource utilization. Results showed a reduction in local production for soybeans and a slight increase in domestic wheat production over the study period. In addition, the study revealed an overall increase in the virtual water imports associated with grain crops, with maize exhibiting the steepest upward trend in comparison with the other grains (wheat and soybeans). Furthermore, the study demonstrated that the import of maize contributed the highest amount of water and land savings, implying that this grain crop had the most significant impact on conserving local water and land resources. Environmental impact assessments, including water stress indices and the unsustainable import fractions, contributed to a comprehensive understanding of grain trade sustainability with concrete result values and insights, highlighting the intricate interplay of international grain trade and local water resource conservation in South Korea. By scrutinizing the virtual land and water dimensions of grain trade, this research offers valuable insights for policymakers and researchers striving to navigate the nexus of agriculture, trade, and resource management. The findings hold significance in the context of ensuring food security, optimizing resource allocation, and fostering sustainable agricultural practices in a dynamically evolving global landscape.

Revealing the nexus profile of agricultural water–land–food–GHG flows in China

Revealing the nexus between agricultural water, land, and greenhouse gases (GHGs) associated with food trade is important for the harmonious development of agricultural resource elements and the guarantee of food security. In this study, we develop a water-land-food-GHG (WLFG) nexus to portray the virtual water, virtual land, and embodied GHG transfers associated with the food trade considering China’s three major food crops (rice, wheat, and maize) by combing environmentally-extended multi-region input-output model with Penman-Monteith equation, crop coefficient method, and IPCC coefficient method. The WLFG coupling coordination relationship was further explored for proposing policy recommendations on the synergy optimization of WLFG. The results showed source structure similarities between crop water requirements and agricultural GHG, with virtual water, land and embodied GHG flows related to the food trade patterns. In 2017, China's total virtual water, virtual land, and embodied GHG transfer flows were 376.85 billion m3, 88.17 million ha, and 391.89 Mt CO2-eq respectively, increasing by 28.42%, 33.25%, and 55.2% compared to 2007. Overall, China’s average WLFG coupling coordination rises slightly on both supply and demand side. This study provides guidance for the synergistic management and sustainable development of agricultural WLFG nexus system.

Virtual land trade and associated risks to food security in China

International trade can help alleviate the scarcity of arable land by importing agricultural and food products. In the context of climate change and socioeconomic development, the patterns in economic and resource flow embodied in the global food trade may be subject to further changes that present risks for economies with scarce land resources, such as China. These conditions exacerbate ongoing food security challenges, yet have so far not been well understood. Here, we combined the environmentally extended multiregional input-output (EE-MRIO) model, Geopolitical Supply Risk (GeoPolRisk) method, and scenario analysis to provide a comprehensive overview of global, virtual land trade patterns caused by China's food consumption and associated virtual land supply risk faced by China. Our results show that, from 1995 to 2015, China has experienced increasing GeoPolRisk of virtual land supply related to food consumption, roughly fivefold, mainly due to growth in total virtual land consumption and changes in trade structure. From 1995 to 2015, total food consumption-related virtual land in China has increased by approximately 35.1%, and the share of foreign land has increased from 6.3% to 43.3%, with the largest land sources shifting from low-income regions (such as Asia and Africa) to more industrialized regions (such as the United States and Australia). Meanwhile, socioeconomic development and dietary changes are the main antecedents to total virtual land consumption, potentially affecting GeoPolRisk. Our results suggest the need for urgent adjustments for a balanced distribution of virtual land sources and to promote healthy dietary transitions and improve agricultural productivity in the future. Our study offers significant information that can guide potential solutions to the sustainable use of land resources and reduce the GeoPolRisk of virtual land trade for decision-makers, thereby facilitating food security.

Tele-connections, driving forces and scenario simulation of agricultural land, water use and carbon emissions in China's trade

Exploring the virtual resources flow along supply chains and the coupling relationship among different resources is important for promoting sustainable agricultural development. In this study, by combing environmentally-extended multi-regional input-output (EEMRIO) and structural decomposition analysis (SDA) methods, we analyzed the transfer of agricultural virtual water, land and carbon emissions in China's regional trade and identified the hidden driving forces. We further explored agricultural water-land-carbon nexus evolution characteristics in different development scenarios. The results showed that trade-embodied agricultural land, water use and carbon emissions increase by 8.5 %, 15.4 % and 27.3 % from 2007 to 2017 respectively. The flow trend is mainly from water-starved northern China to southern and southeastern China. Virtual water flows reduce 41.5 % and embodied carbon emissions reduce 31.9 % after the improvement of water use efficiency and reduction of carbon intensity in 2030 under the W2LC2 scenario, where faces the least water-land-carbon pressure. The results provide important information for alleviating the inequality of regional resource and environmental pressure in China.

Virtual Land in the Metaverse? Exploring the Dynamic Correlation With Physical Real Estate

Virtual Land in the Metaverse? Exploring the Dynamic Correlation With Physical Real Estate

Regulating Virtual Land Sales in Indonesia's Metaverse


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This study explores the legal challenges and implications of virtual land sales through the metaverse in the context of Indonesia's digital era 5.0, focusing on consumer protection and the prevention of digital crimes. The primary aim is to analyze the legal framework governing these transactions and assess their conformity with the principles of valid contracts under Indonesian civil law. Employing a normative research methodology, the study evaluates existing regulations and legal literature to understand the current legal landscape. The findings reveal a lack of specific legislation in Indonesia regarding virtual land transactions in the metaverse, categorizing them under general electronic transactions governed by the Electronic Information and Transactions Law. Despite this, these transactions generally meet the legal requirements of a valid contract in Indonesian civil law, such as mutual consent, competency, a specific object, and a lawful cause. However, the study underscores the need for specific regulations to provide legal clarity and enhanced protection for parties involved in virtual land sales, considering the unique and virtual nature of the transaction objects. The research concludes with a call for international collaboration to contribute to the development of a balanced and contemporary global legal framework for metaverse transactions.
 Highlights:
 
 Absence of Specific Legislation: Current Indonesian laws do not specifically address virtual land sales in the metaverse, creating legal ambiguity.
 Electronic Transaction Classification: Virtual land sales are generally governed by Indonesia's Electronic Information and Transactions Law, aligning them with other electronic transactions.
 Need for Enhanced Legal Protection: Given the unique nature of virtual transactions, there is a significant need for specific regulations to ensure legal clarity and protect the rights of parties involved.
 
 Keywords: Metaverse, Virtual Land Sales, Indonesian Law, Electronic Transactions, Legal Framework
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Programming of one-dimansional and two-dimensional tokens for tokenization of land plots

The use of blockchain tools that allows spliting virtual objects into parts is considered. Examples of practical use of the developed algorithms are presented. The concept of one-dimensional and two-dimensional tokens representing one-dimensional and flat objects is proposed. Algorithms for the implementation of one-dimensional tokens are developed, and the peculiarities of their practical application are considered. A designed smart contract allows to conduct a basic list of operations with one-dimensional tokens. Algorithms, providing implementation of two-dimensional tokens, are proposed. Peculiarities of presenting territories of virtual worlds and land plots are suggested. A comparative analysis of the use of NFT and two-dimensional tokens for presenting the Earth surface areas is performed. Methods that ensure ownership of tokens at different levels are proposed.

The characteri-zation of virtual land as a digital thing

The characteri-zation of virtual land as a digital thing

Urban sector land use metabolism reveals inequalities across cities and inverse virtual land flows

Urban land is the primary scene for manufacturing and services providing, through which the economic activities and trade flows amplify and cascade, interacting the natural and human systems. However, our understanding of the spatial pattern, remote drivers, and coupled interwoven linkages of economic sectoral land use within and among cities remains inadequate. Here, we establish a novel sectoral urban land use inventory and a virtual land flow network for 13 cities in the Jing-Jin-Ji region in China to understand urban land use metabolism. Results show highly mixed distribution patterns of urban sectoral land use. Moreover, spatial heterogeneity exists among industries and across spatial scales. Urban virtual land flow presents inverse directions compared to agricultural land. Results also reveal inequalities in benefit-cost and supply chain networks across cities, and a wide range of control and exploitation relationships in the region. Our results suggest that Beijing and Tianjin, as main beneficiaries in the regional economic network, are responsible for collaborating intensively in Jing-Jin-Ji region and will be key in promoting sustainable development.

Tele-connecting local consumption to cultivated land use and hidden drivers in China

China faces significant pressure on cultivated land resources due to the accelerated pace of urbanization in recent years. The study of embodied cultivated land offers a new perspective on alleviating pressure on cultivated land between different regions. However, the temporal dynamics characteristic and the intersectoral linkages of embodied cultivated land have rarely been systematically described. Therefore, we applied an environmental extended multi-regional input-output approach to analyze the spatial patterns and flow relationships of virtual cultivated land (VCL) between regional, provincial and sectoral scale in China from 2007 to 2017, considering both temporal and spatial dimensions. Then, we explored the hidden drivers of VCL change using structural decomposition analysis (SDA). Our results showed that trade embodied cultivated land increase by 8.5 % from 2007 to 2017. The flow trend is primarily flowed out from the less developed northwest China but with abundant cultivated land to the more developed regions of the southeast coast. Especially, in 2015, the net outflow of VCL from the northwest region reached 15.82 Mha, which was the maximum value during the study period. In addition, agricultural and construction sector were the major land consumption sector. VCL consumed by the agricultural sector declined 12.51 %, while the VCL consumed by construction sector had a significant growth in 2007–2017. Furthermore, the results of SDA revealed that cultivated land use intensity and per capita final demand were the main factors causing changes in embodied cultivated land. The results can help clarify the responsible parties for land consumption and provide a guarantee for alleviating the pressure on regional cultivated land resources.