Victim Empathy Research Articles

Acting like a Tough Guy: Violent-Sexist Video Games, Identification with Game Characters, Masculine Beliefs, & Empathy for Female Violence Victims.

Empathy—putting oneself in another’s shoes—has been described as the “social glue” that holds society together. This study investigates how exposure to sexist video games can decrease empathy for female violence victims. We hypothesized that playing violent-sexist video games would increase endorsement of masculine beliefs, especially among participants who highly identify with dominant and aggressive male game characters. We also hypothesized that the endorsement of masculine beliefs would reduce empathy toward female violence victims. Participants (N = 154) were randomly assigned to play a violent-sexist game, a violent-only game, or a non-violent game. After gameplay, measures of identification with the game character, traditional masculine beliefs, and empathy for female violence victims were assessed. We found that participants’ gender and their identification with the violent male video game character moderated the effects of the exposure to sexist-violent video games on masculine beliefs. Our results supported the prediction that playing violent-sexist video games increases masculine beliefs, which occurred for male (but not female) participants who were highly identified with the game character. Masculine beliefs, in turn, negatively predicted empathic feelings for female violence victims. Overall, our study shows who is most affected by the exposure to sexist-violent video games, and why the effects occur. (200 words)

Human trafficking: factors that influence willingness to combat the issue

AbstractHuman trafficking involves severe violations of human rights and social action is required to combat it. Past research has identified emotional reactions to victims of trafficking, as well as the perceived cost and efficacy of actions, as significant predictors of willingness to get involved. We surveyed 216 Australians (70% female) to assess their perceptions of sex and labor trafficking and actions to reduce them. Results demonstrated that women reported greater personal distress (but not empathy) for victims than men, which was associated with greater willingness to take action. Women also perceived available actions to be more efficacious than men, which predicted willingness, while perceived cost of actions did not. Implications for promoting social action to reduce human trafficking are discussed.

Applying the concept of reciprocal roles to relapse prevention with offenders: a cognitive analytic therapy informed approach

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the ways in which cognitive analytic therapy (CAT) informed reciprocal-role procedures could better inform relapse prevention planning for offenders in treatment programmes. Design/methodology/approach – The paper will explore the literature in relation to the efficacy of traditional victim empathy modules within accredited interventions as an intervention to reduce recidivism. Specifically, the paper will argue that current methods of victim empathy can pose a risk of increasing risk factors associated with recidivism and may be ineffective at reducing recidivism for certain clients. Findings – Offender treatment using victim empathy could be more effectively utilised from a CAT informed perspective. The paper will introduce “No more Victims” which is a newly designed module using a CAT informed relapse prevention approach to assist offenders to consider the reciprocal roles which take them closer to offending and how to exit these. Research limitations/implications – This paper argues that standard victim empathy modules may be difficult to access for some offenders and the validity of this approach in reducing recidivism is questionable. However, considering the role of the victim within offending behaviour interventions can be of value and this can be particularly helpful in terms of risk management and risk reduction. CAT informed approaches such as the “No more Victims” module provide a method of exploring victim issues in a way that is responsive to the needs of the offender and the module can be used as an adjunct to cognitive behavioural therapy interventions. This approach can also enhance victim safety planning and better inform risk management plans for the offender and those supervising them. It is suggested that this approach should be more widely used in other forensic interventions to enable clients to have valuable insight into the role they assume when offending and how the risk of this being re-enacted in the future can be revised. Originality/value – The paper will describe how consideration of reciprocal roles between the offender and victim could better inform relapse prevention in offender treatment programmes. An example of a session from the “No more Victims” module is provided.

Predicting Rape Victim Empathy Based on Rape Victimization and Acknowledgment Labeling.

Two studies examined rape victim empathy based on personal rape victimization and acknowledgment labeling. Female undergraduates (Study 1, n = 267; Study 2, n = 381) from a Northeast U.S. midsize public university completed the Rape-Victim Empathy Scale and Sexual Experiences Survey. As predicted, both studies found that acknowledged "rape" victims reported greater empathy than unacknowledged victims and nonvictims. Unexpectedly, these latter two groups did not differ. Study 1 also found that acknowledged "rape" victims reported greater empathy than victims who acknowledged being "sexually victimized." Findings suggest that being raped and acknowledging "rape" together may facilitate rape victim empathy.

Ethnic differences vs nationhood in times of national crises: The role of social media and communication strategies

Abstract Are there events that temporarily unite differences among ethnic groups in a multiethnic nation state? Using a Kenya’s drought-relief initiative, dubbed Kenyans4Kenya (K4K), this article responds to this question. It uses framing analysis to examine how K4K and its followers constructed messages to deliberately generate empathy for the drought victims. Messages on K4K’s Facebook page were placed in three collective frames: diagnostic, prognostic and motivational. They were also coded according to three identified thematic frames: anti-regime, humanitarian, and patriotism/ national pride. The findings of this study demonstrate the success of K4K in its ability to frame a humanitarian crisis in a way that rendered the divisive fissures of ethnic differences temporarily insignificance and inconspicuous. K4K successfully cast the pain and suffering of the drought victims as unwarranted by locating its discourse within the ambit of a nation that had failed to provide its citizens with the very basic of human rights.

Navigating the gender minefield: An IPV prevention campaign sheds light on the gender gap

This article examines how differences in male and female views about intimate partner violence (IPV) contributed to divergent responses to a prevention campaign conducted in the western USA. The study examines focus groups (n = 22) and in-depth interview data (n = 13) collected during campaign development to shed light on quantitative results indicating that women (but not men) increased their perceived severity of domestic violence and awareness of services from pre-test to post-test, while male attitudes moved in the opposite direction. Results of the qualitative study provide the basis for the authors’ conclusions about why reactions differed: (1) men’s unwillingness to view abuse within a gender context limits men’s ability to accept the inequity in statistically demonstrated male and female roles as perpetrators and victims; (2) male resentment of existing gender stereotypes contributed to a rejection of campaign messages that utilised gender prevalence statistics to depict images showing men as perpetrators and women as victims; and (3) victim blaming attitudes contributed to resistance to empathy for victims depicted in the campaign. The authors offer suggestions for future campaigns that foster agency among both perpetrators and survivors while confronting the structural barriers to enacting change.

Pitfalls in adapting general population measures for use in research with people with intellectual disabilities

Objectives:In a study concerning empathy in offenders who have intellectual disabilities (ID) we adapted a measure designed for use with the general population. In this paper we describe how we did this and the pitfalls we encountered. We were looking at empathy because it is seen as a significant factor in treatment and treatment outcomes with sex offenders. This has been inducted into treatment programmes and evaluations with sex offenders who have ID. The aim of our study was to explore general and victim empathy in sex-offenders and non-offenders with ID. The original aim was to explore differences between these groups on adapted measures of general and victim empathy, and if there was any relationship between the sex-offenders’ scores on empathy towards non-specific victims of sexual assault and their empathy towards their own victim.Methods:A measure of general and victim specific empathy developed for use with sex offenders in the general population (the Empat) was adapted for use with adults who have ID. Twenty-one sex-offenders and 21 non-offenders with ID, matched by age, gender and IQ, completed the adapted version of the Empat and the offender group also completed a previously adapted version of the Victim Empathy Scale.Results:Psychometric evaluation of the adapted scale produced marginal and poor reliabilities. In view of this further analysis to examine comparisons between the two groups would most likely produce spurious results. Thus the introduction of measures from the general population to populations of people who have ID are not always successful. However, such outcomes are not always reported. Further research is needed to develop better approaches to the assessment of victim specific and general empathy in offenders who have ID.Conclusion:Despite following guidelines on measure adaptation for people who have ID, the measures did not achieve satisfactory psychometric properties and, therefore, any findings could be spurious. This study clearly shows that researchers need to establish that any general population measures they employ or adapt for use with people who have ID need to be evaluated psychometrically first.

Explaining gender differences in jurors' reactions to child sexual assault cases.

In three experiments, we investigated the influence of juror, victim, and case factors on mock jurors' decisions in several types of child sexual assault cases (incest, day care, stranger abduction, and teacher-perpetrated abuse). We also validated and tested the ability of several scales measuring empathy for child victims, children's believability, and opposition to adult/child sex, to mediate the effect of jurors' gender on case judgments. Supporting a theoretical model derived from research on the perceived credibility of adult rape victims, women compared to men were more empathic toward child victims, more opposed to adult/child sex, more pro-women, and more inclined to believe children generally. In turn, women (versus men) made more pro-victim judgments in hypothetical abuse cases; that is, attitudes and empathy generally mediated this juror gender effect that is pervasive in this literature. The experiments also revealed that strength of case evidence is a powerful factor in determining judgments, and that teen victims (14 years old) are blamed more for sexual abuse than are younger children (5 years old), but that perceptions of 5 and 10 year olds are largely similar. Our last experiment illustrated that our findings of mediation generalize to a community member sample.

Expectations of emotions during testimony: the role of communicator and perceiver characteristics.

This study investigated the influence of communicator (child victim) and perceiver (adult participant) characteristics on expectations about witnesses' emotional displays during testimony. In total, 191 adults were asked whether or not they expected child victims who were testifying about sexual abuse to display sadness, fear, anger, disgust, happiness, or a neutral demeanor, and how intensely the adults expected each emotion to be displayed. In describing the victims, child age (5 vs. 13 years old) and child gender (female vs. male) were factorially combined as within-subject factors. Results included that victim gender predicted expectations of fear, and victim age predicted expectations of anger and disgust. There was a significant interaction of victim age and victim gender for expectations of sadness. Of participants who expected multiple emotions, a combination of negative and neutral emotions was expected more from 13-year-old female victims than from 5-year-old female victims. Child victim empathy predicted ratings of how intensely sad and fearful the child victim would look. Implications of these findings for psychological research and the legal system are discussed.

Measuring victim empathy among mentally disordered offenders: Validating VERA-2

There are very few, if any, valid and victim-specific situation empathy measures available at present for use with mentally disordered offenders. The aim of this study was to validate a modified version (VERA-2) of the Victim Empathy Response Assessment (VERA) tool which was developed earlier (Young et al., 2008) to enable victim-specific situation empathy measurement in offenders. A total of 55 mentally disordered in-patients residing in a maximum security hospital were assessed on VERA-2 as well as on measures of antisocial personality traits, global affective empathy, violent cognitions, and reported remorse for the index offence. The VERA-2 cognitive and affective empathy scales were negatively correlated with antisocial personality traits and violent cognitions, and positively related to remorse for the index offence. Global affective empathy was positively related to VERA-2 affective empathy. Participants with a history of sexual offending had significantly higher cognitive empathy than other offenders. Acceptance of violence and remorse for the index offence were the best predictors of both cognitive and affective empathy. The findings suggest that the VERA-2 is a valid instrument for measuring victim empathy among mentally disordered offenders, and may prove useful in the context of future risk assessment and outcomes in this population.

A web-based sexual violence bystander intervention for male college students: randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundBystander intervention approaches offer promise for reducing rates of sexual violence on college campuses. Most interventions are in-person small-group formats, which limit their reach and reduce their overall public health impact.ObjectiveThis study evaluated the efficacy of RealConsent, a Web-based bystander approach to sexual violence prevention, in enhancing prosocial intervening behaviors and preventing sexual violence perpetration.MethodsA random probability sample of 743 male undergraduate students (aged 18 to 24 years) attending a large, urban university located in the southeastern United States was recruited online and randomized to either RealConsent (n=376) or a Web-based general health promotion program (n=367). Participants were surveyed online at baseline, postintervention, and 6-months postintervention. RealConsent was delivered via a password-protected Web portal that contained six 30-minute media-based and interactive modules covering knowledge of informed consent, communication skills regarding sex, the role of alcohol and male socialization in sexual violence, empathy for rape victims, and bystander education. Primary outcomes were self-reported prosocial intervening behaviors and sexual violence perpetration. Secondary outcomes were theoretical mediators (eg, knowledge, attitudes).ResultsAt 6-month follow-up RealConsent participants intervened more often (P=.04) and engaged in less sexual violence perpetration (P=.04) compared to controls. In addition, RealConsent participants reported greater legal knowledge of sexual assault (P<.001), greater knowledge of effective consent (P<.001), less rape myths (P<.001), greater empathy for rape victims (P<.001), less negative date rape attitudes (P<.001), less hostility toward women (P=.01), greater intentions to intervene (P=.04), less hyper-gender ideology (P<.001), less positive outcome expectancies for nonconsensual sex (P=.03), more positive outcome expectancies for intervening (P<.001), and less comfort with other men’s inappropriate behaviors (P<.001).ConclusionsOur results support the efficacy of RealConsent. Due to its Web-based format, RealConsent has potential for broad-based dissemination thereby increasing its overall public health impact on sexual violence.Trial RegistrationClinicaltrials.gov: NCT01903876; http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01903876 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6S1PXxWKt).

Perceptions of, and Assistance Provided to, a Hypothetical Rape Victim: Differences Between Rape Disclosure Recipients and Nonrecipients

Objective: Undergraduate rape disclosure recipients’ and nonrecipients’ sociodemographic and life experience variables, attitudes towards rape, and responses to a hypothetical rape disclosure were compared to determine differences between them. Participants: One hundred ninety-two undergraduates at 3 universities participated in this online survey between November 2011 and April 2012. Methods: Participants reported on their rape myth acceptance (RMA) and personal direct and indirect (ie, disclosure receipt) experiences with sexual assault. Participants also responded to a hypothetical rape disclosure. Results: Disclosure recipients were more likely to report a victimization history, and less confusion and perceived ineffectiveness in helping the hypothetical victim. RMA and nonrecipient status predicted perceived victim responsibility; these variables and childhood victimization predicted confusion about helping. RMA also predicted perceived ineffectiveness of one's helping behaviors. Victimization history and female gender predicted victim empathy. Conclusions: These findings can inform sexual assault–related programming for undergraduates through the provision of targeted assistance and corrective information.

Labeling Acts of Sexual Violence: What Roles do Assault Characteristics, Attitudes, and Life Experiences Play?

The label assigned to a given act of sexual violence (e.g., rape, sexual assault) can have a notable impact on perceptions of the incident and the role of the individuals involved. Research has identified personal rape scripts and assault characteristics as factors that influence the labeling of sexual violence. This study advances the field by providing information about the influence of participant-related variables (e.g., life experiences, personal attitudes) on the labeling of a sexual violence vignette. Results from this online study of 379 participants revealed that victim empathy, perpetrator empathy, rape myth acceptance (RMA) and receipt of a rape disclosure were associated with correctly labeling a sexual violence vignette as a rape; RMA remained a significant predictor of labeling after all variables were entered into the regression simultaneously. Assault characteristics, victimization history, acknowledgement of victimization and gender were not associated with the label assigned to the vignette in the regression, although inspection of qualitative reasons given for labeling the vignette revealed that some of these factors may influence label choice. Importantly, participants who labeled the event as a rape were less likely to assign responsibility for the assault to the victim. Implications of correctly identifying and labeling experiences of sexual violence, both for victims and for support providers, are discussed.

Men with intellectual disabilities with a history of sexual offending: empathy for victims of sexual and non-sexual crimes.

The objectives were (a) to compare the general empathy abilities of men with intellectual disabilities (IDs) who had a history of sexual offending to men with IDs who had no known history of illegal behaviour; and (b) to determine whether men with IDs who had a history of sexual offending had different levels of specific victim empathy towards their own victim, in comparison with an unknown victim of sexual crime, and a victim of non-sexual crime, and make comparisons with non-offenders. Men with mild IDs (n=35) were asked to complete a measure of general empathy and a measure of specific victim empathy. All participants completed the victim empathy measure in relation to a hypothetical victim of a sexual offence, and a non-sexual crime, while additionally, men with a history of sexual offending were asked to complete this measure in relation to their own most recent victim. Men with a history of sexual offending had significantly lower general empathy, and specific victim empathy towards an unknown sexual offence victim, than men with no known history of illegal behaviour. Men with a history of sexual offending had significantly lower victim empathy for their own victim than for an unknown sexual offence victim. Victim empathy towards an unknown victim of a non-sexual crime did not differ significantly between the two groups. The findings suggest that it is important include interventions within treatment programmes that attempt to improve empathy and perspective-taking.

Online Child Pornography Offenders are Different: A Meta-analysis of the Characteristics of Online and Offline Sex Offenders Against Children

The current meta-analysis compared the characteristics of online child pornography-only offenders, typical (offline) sex offenders against children, and offenders with both child pornography and contact sex offences against children (mixed). Based on 30 unique samples (comparison ns ranging from 98 to 2,702), the meta-analysis found key differences between groups. Offenders who committed contact sex offences were more likely to have access to children than those with only child pornography offences. In contrast, offenders who used the internet to commit sexual offences had greater access to the internet than those with contact sex offenders. Differences between the groups, however, were not limited to differential opportunities. Sex offenders against children and mixed offenders were found to score higher on indicators of antisociality than online child pornography offenders (CPOs). CPOs were also more likely to have psychological barriers to sexual offending than sex offenders against children and mixed offenders (e.g., greater victim empathy). Mixed offenders were found to be the most pedophilic, even more than CPOs. The findings suggest that offenders who restricted their offending behavior to online child pornography offences were different from mixed offenders and offline sex offenders against children, and that mixed offenders were a particularly high risk group.

African Atrocity, American Humanity: Slavery and Its Transnational Afterlives

This essay argues that contemporary American conceptions of African atrocity are haunted by the specter of slavery, which structures the ways in which a relation between the United States and Africa is imagined. Francis Bok’s memoir, Escape from Slavery (2003), and Dave Eggers’s novel What Is the What (2006) reveal the stakes of this literary haunting, where the canonical Atlantic genre of the antebellum slave narrative is called into play to narrate contemporary Sudanese stories, thus refashioning the politics of race and diaspora for a neoliberal age. Reading for the formal and ideological exchanges between subject, author, and amanuensis, the essay shows how the discourse of modern slavery relies on sentimental humanism to generate a seemingly new way for Americans to imagine themselves as global citizens, constituting themselves as global via their humanitarian empathy for the African victim of atrocity.

Predictors of teacher intervention in indirect bullying at school and outcome of a professional development presentation for teachers

This study with 326 girls-school teachers developed and tested a model of predictors of the likelihood that teachers will intervene in indirect bullying, and evaluated a professional development presentation. Teachers responded to bullying vignettes before and after a presentation on indirect bullying (Experimentals) or adolescent mental health (Controls). In accord with the model, perceived seriousness of indirect bullying mediated between empathy for victims and likelihood of intervening. Self-efficacy also had a direct effect on likelihood of intervention, though level of knowledge of the impact of indirect bullying made only a small contribution. Compared with Controls, the Experimental Group scored more highly, after the presentation, on perceived seriousness of indirect bullying, empathy for victims, likelihood of intervening and self-efficacy, but not on knowledge of impact. It is concluded that teacher education about indirect bullying may be most effective if it focuses on feelings rather than facts, and provides practical intervention strategies.

Situational, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal Characteristic Associations With Adolescent Conflict Forgiveness

ABSTRACT Given the voluntary nature of adolescent friendships, forgiveness of interpersonal transgressions has been identified as a critical aspect of maintaining these relationships. However, transgression forgiveness is related to a range of situational (e.g., transgression severity), interpersonal (e.g., friendship commitment), and intrapersonal (e.g., victim's empathy) factors. Data from 161 adolescents were used to examine the nature of the relationships between these factors and forgiveness and to examine the differential association patterns for adolescent boys and girls. Results for the overall adolescent sample indicated both situational and interpersonal factor associations with forgiveness (R 2 = .52, p < .001). Examination of separate female and male forgiveness reports indicated similar interpersonal factor associations and differential situational factor associations with female (R 2 = .46, p < .001), and male (R 2 = .60, p < .001) forgiveness. Findings suggest the likelihood of forgiving may be contextually dependent, and that researchers should consider transgression, relationship, and intrapersonal characteristics when examining forgiveness. Further, the present study suggests the contextual factors associated with forgiveness may be further differentiated by gender.

A Consumer Satisfaction Survey of Civilly Committed Sex Offenders in Illinois

The purpose of this study was to obtain feedback from civilly committed sex offenders (N = 113) about the components of treatment that they believed to be most important and helpful in preventing reoffense. Participants were also asked to rate their satisfaction with the treatment process and therapists. Victim empathy and accountability were rated as the most important elements of treatment, along with skills for preventing relapse and methods for controlling sexual arousal. There was a fairly robust correlation between client perceptions of importance and satisfaction on most treatment components. Some clients expressed concerns about respect, confidentiality, and judgmental attitudes of some therapists. Because civilly committed sex offenders are considered to be among the most likely to reoffend, strategies are discussed for engagement of this population in a meaningful process of change.

Comfortably numb or just yet another movie? Media violence exposure does not reduce viewer empathy for victims of real violence among primarily Hispanic viewers.

Continued debate exists regarding the impact of media violence exposure on viewers’ thoughts and behaviors. One facet of this debate has focused on the possibility that viewing media violence may desensitize viewers to the suffering of others and reduce their empathy. In the current study, 238 mostly Hispanic, young adults were randomized to watch either a violent or nonviolent TV show. Participants also watched clips of either fictional victims of violence (i.e., movie clips) or clips of actual people being injured or killed. Participants were significantly more empathic of victims’ suffering when they knew they were watching real violence rather than fictional violence. However, previous exposure to a violent or nonviolent TV show did not reduce empathy. These results suggest that, at least among a primarily Hispanic audience, viewers’ processing of media depends upon whether they understand it to be real or fictional, and media violence does not necessarily reduce empathy to real-life violence.